WaiWiki - User contributions [en]

Beleidsplan

2025-07-03T13:30:03Z

RRM:

==Stichting Ecosan Ghana==

- Het werk wat de instelling doet:
Boren van waterputten en het aanleggen van waterreinigingsinstallatie in Ghana en Mozambique

- De manier waarop de stichting geld werft:
Het werven van donaties van bedrijven en particulieren

- De manier waarop de stichting het geld beheerd:
Het geld wordt beheerd door het bestuur, dat verantwoordelijk is voor het selecteren van projecten; waar we het meeste impact kunnen hebben. Met name in gebieden waar er geen waterleiding is, of waar sprake is van grondwater verontreiniging.

- De manier waarop het geld wordt uitgegeven:
Het bestuur selecteert lokale vertegenwoordigers die getest worden op hun betrouwbaarheid, waarna ze de verantwoordelijkheid krijgen over een klein project. Na afronding van het project komt een bestuurslid het resultaat en de uitvoering controleren. Bij een goed resultaat krijgt de lokale vertegenwoordiger geld beschikbaar voor een volgend project.

.

==Beleidsplan 2017==

Het doel van de stichting ([http://www.ecosanghana.org/Kvk.pdf KvK #7433316]; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Taxes.JPG RSIN #856987682]) is het bouwen van composterende toiletten en waterputten op het platteland in Ghana om daar de watervoorziening te verbeteren.

We zijn in 2016 reeds begonnen met het slaan van waterputten in twee dorpjes nabij Dunkwa-On-Offin: [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tekyekrom Tekyekrom] en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso Modaso]. Ter voltooing van de waterputten hebben we in 2016 ook [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes pijpen] (voor het in stand houden van de putten) en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump op zonne-energie werkende waterpompen] besteld. De bedoeling is dat in de laatste week van januari 2017 beginnen met het installeren van de pijpen. Daarna is het wachten op de aankomst van de pompen. Hopelijk kunnen we die in maart 2017 gaan installeren. Daarna, in april of mei 2017, zullen we van start gaan met de bouw van een [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet composterend toilet] in Modaso, achter dezelfde school waar we reeds aan de voorzijde een waterput geslagen hebben. Hopelijk kunnen we dat in 2017 afronden.

[b]Het Geld[/b]

Tot nu toe is de voor-financiering van de lopende projecten gedaan met geld uit onze eigen zakken. Middels het voorleggen van succesvolle projecten aan bedrijven hopen we ook enkele bedrijven zo ver krijgen om een steentje bij te dragen.

De kosten voor het slaan van waterputten hangen samen met hoe diep het grondwater zit. De kosten van de pijpen zijn sterk afhankelijk van de diepte van de put; ongeveer 56 tot 140 euro per put. De pompen zijn nog niet geimporteerd, maar we schatten dat uiteindelijk de totale kosten op ongeveer 1000 euro per pomp uit zullen komen. Daarnaast is er nog een polytank nodig, a 400 euro. De kostenopbouw wordt [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting uitgesplitst en toegelicht].

De bestuurders krijgen geen salaris. Ook krijgen de bestuurders geen enkele onkostenvergoeding. De lokale manager (Nicholas Ofori-Atta) krijgt ook geen salaris of onkostenvergoeding. Alleen aan het bouwen van de waterputten en toiletten zelf wordt geld uitgegeven. (aanschaf, import, vervoer, materiaalkosten)

[b]Locaties[/b]

Toestemming krijgen voor het bouwen van toiletten is een heel gedoe in Ghana, daar er allerlei belangen en posities meespelen. We beginnen derhalve in gebieden waar we welwillende contacten opgebouwd hebben. Voor ons tot nu toe het meest toegankelijk is het distrikt Upper Denkyira East (met Modaso en Tekyekrom), gevolgd door de distrikten Atiwa en Fanteakwa.

.

==Beleidsplan 2018==

In Modaso zijn we er in geslaagd om een waterpomp te installeren. In Tekyekrom is dit niet gelukt; de plaatselijke koningin had besloten het ter beschikking gestelde land toch te verkopen, en weigerde ander land ter beschikking te stellen. We trekken ons derhalve terug uit Tekyekrom. In 2017 zijn we er pas aan het eind van het jaar in geslaagd om een vergunnning te krijgen voor het bouwen van een composterend toilet in Modaso. Met de bouw daarvan gaan we in 2018 van start, en hopelijk kunnen we dit in 2018 ook afronden.

[b]Geld[/b]

In 2017 hebben we een donatie ontvangen van 7025 euro, waarmee we het grootste gedeelte van de kosten kunnen dekken. De rest wordt vooralsnog uit eigen zak voorgeschoten. De kosten per pomp bleken uiteindelijk 556 euro te bedragen.

.

==Beleidsplan 2019==

In Modaso hadden we de garantie nodig dat de grond waar wij op bouwen niet opgeeist kan worden voor andere doeleinden. Pas eind 2018 waren die papieren door het hooggerecht opgesteld. Nu wachten we nog op de benodigde handtekeningen. Ons is beloofd dat dit in de eerste maanden van 2019 afgerond zal worden. Het fundament voor het composterende toilet is inmiddels klaar. Voortzetting van de bouw zal beginnen nadat ook die papieren compleet zijn. In 2018 hebben we donaties ontvangen ter waarde van 2000 en 4344 euro. In 2019 gaan we dat geld gebruiken om de pickup truck af te betalen en om cement en grind te kopen voor het beton.

[b]Geld[/b]

Enkele grote [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate donaties] zijn afkomstig van bedrijven, en een reeks kleinere donaties van particulieren. Bestuurslid Thijs Klompmaker doneert maandelijks een contractueel vastgelegd vast bedrag. Overheadkosten worden door de 3 bestuursleden gedoneerd. Boekhouderskantoor Van Hall Zes uit Amsterdam heeft de boekhouding van 2016 en 2017 voor ons verzorgd zonder hiervoor kosten in rekening te brengen. Robert Hoogendoorn heeft als vrijwilliger de jaarrekening van 2018 voorbereid.

.

==Beleidsplan 2020==

De papieren voor Modaso zijn (eind 2019...) eindelijk gereed, en we kunnen nu met de bovengrondse bouw verder. Om niet teveel tijd te verliezen waren we in 2019 al vast begonnen met de fundamenten voor toiletten op 2 nieuwe, nabije lokaties: Kwameprekrom en Abrobuasen. Hopelijk kunnen we ook deze toiletten in 2020 afbouwen. In Kwameprekrom is het grondwater besmet gebleken met fecale bacterien, wat de hoge lokale kindersterfte kan verklaren. Als oplossing hiervoor hadden wij besloten tot de bouw van een spirulina raceway, waarin het opgepompte water gezuiverd kan worden door spirulina. Dit laatste project is reeds in een vergevorderd stadium, en we zullen dit in 2020 zeker af kunnen ronden.

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==Beleidsplan 2021==

Na het voltooien van de spirulina raceway als waterzuiveringsinstallatie bleek dat het systeem goed werkt. Het systeem zuivert niet alleen, maar werkt ook preventief. Een deel van de menselijke ontlasting en kippenmest in [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Kwameprekrom Kwameprekrom] vervuild nu niet langer het grondwater, en dient nu in plaats daarvan als voedingsbron voor de groei van spirulina, dat gebruikt wordt als visvoer door de plaatselijke viskweker. Wij zijn nu door vertegenwoordigers van diverse dorpjes gevraagd om ook daar een waterzuiveringsinstallatie te komen bouwen. Ook is er belangstelling vanuit Mozambique en Tanzania. Een team van vijf vrijwilligers uit [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Manhica Manhica, Mozambique] heeft zich reeds aangemeld om de benodigde arbeid te verrichten.

.

==Beleidsplan 2022==

Middels een reeks van grondwatertesten zijn er achter gekomen dat de vervuiling van grondwater in Ghana weider verbrijd is dan voorheen aangenomen. Dit is wellicht toe te schrijven aan een nieuw type van opvang van het afvalwater. Voorheen werd er bij de bouw van een stenen huis ook een rioolput aangelegd; de zogenaamde "manhole", bestaande uit een betonnen kelderput die regelmatig geleegd moest worden. Tegenwoordig wordt hierop bezuinigd door een zogeheten "degrading" systeem te gebruiken. Hierbij wordt er alleen een gat gegraven waarbij een laag houtskool voor de 'ontsmetting' moet zorgen en het afvalwater daarna in de grond weg lekt. Het is goed mogelijk dat dit tot een hogere graad voor grondwater besmetting leidt. Hiermee rekening houdende, moeten we onze aandacht wellicht meer richten op het voorzien van water voor de landbouw dan als drinkwater. We gaan dit jaar op zoek naar droge landbouwgebieden met een grote vraag naar water voor de gewassen. In Mozambique gaan we vooral bezig zijn met het voorbereiden van land voor het reinigen van 'manhole water'.

.

==Beleidsplan 2023==

In de kustregio van Ghana in de regio van Cape Coast zijn in de buurt van het dorpje Mankesim heuvelachtige landbouwgebieden die erg droog zijn, maar waar toch naar grondwater te boren moet kunnen zijn, vanwege de nabijheid van de zee. Op een eerste boorlocatie hebben we daar op een diepte van 110 meter uiteindelijk water gevonden. Vanwege de diepte moeten we echter wel iets meer uitgeven aan zonnepanelen om dit water te kunnen 'oogsten'.

In tegenstelling tot Ghana, zijn 'biodegrading' systemen minder in zwang dan de betonnen 'manholes', waardoor er nog steeds een groot overschot is aan te zuiveren afvalwater.
In Mozambique zijn we door Corona behoorlijk achter op schema geraakt, maar gaan we in 2023 verder met de aanleg van waterzuiveringsinstallaties (waarbij Spirulina het water zuivert) in Santa Isabel, Manhica en Nampula.

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==Beleidsplan 2024==

In Mankesim, in de kustregio van Ghana in de buurt van Cape Coast, blijkt het grondwater brak te zijn. Dit water is te zout om als drinkwater te gebruiken. Ook voor vele gewassen is het water te zout. Het is in Principe wel bruikwater voor het kweken van Spirulina, dat als veevoer te begruiken is. Ook zijn er fecale bacterien in het grondwater aangetroffen, wat voor drinkwater een groot probleem is, maar niet voor de teelt van Spirulina. Wellicht moeten we derhalve overwegen om hier een waterzuiveringsinstallatie te bouwen.

In Mozambique zijn we door een gebrek aan nieuwe fondsen niet verder gekomen. In de huidige situatie zijn we slechts in staat om de bereikte doelen te handhaven, middels onderhoud en bewaking.

.

==Beleidsplan 2025==

In Mankesim, Ghana, gaan we in 2025 beginnen met de ommuring van het beschikbaar land. In 2024 zijn we er in geslaagd om een huisje te bouwen voor de heerder van de te bouwen waterzuiveringsinstallatie. Wellicht kunnen we in 2025 ook de betonnen vloer voor de installatie aanleggen.

In Mozambique kunnen in 2025 eindelijk verder doordat er een grote donatie aan zit te komen. We willen dan de ommuring in Santa Isabel en Manhica compleet maken. We kunnen dan ook naar water gaan boren in Santa Isabel, waar een groot gebrek aan water is. Een nabijgelegen put is onlangs ingestort. In Nampula hebben we helaas het project moeten staken vanwege modderlawines, alsmede de penetratie van radicale milities in het nabijgelegen gebied.

Cement-05-10-2020

2024-09-23T23:00:44Z

RRM:

[[Image:EcoSanGhana.jpg|thumb|left| ]]

For the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique we need concrete. We are making concrete with the following ratio: 1 part cement + 3 parts aggregate + 3 parts sand.
The cement was a better deal to buy in South Africa and subsequently collect in Mozambique. The price is in South African Rand (at rate 0.057 Euro)

[http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting Back to the accounting page].

[[Image:Mozambique-cement-2020-1b.jpg|thumb|left| ]]
[[Image:Mozambique-cement-2020-1b.jpg|thumb|right| ]]

The Mozambique manager is Hilario Tivane

[[Image:Hilario.jpg|thumb|right| ]]

Cement-05-10-2020

2024-09-23T22:53:50Z

RRM:

Cement-05-10-2020

2024-09-23T22:53:20Z

RRM:

Costs

2024-09-23T22:39:43Z

RRM: /* 2020 */

Accounted Costs Stichting Ecosan Ghana

.

'''"FloFlo"''' - The percussion drill tower used for drilling bore holes: initial costs €3500, owned by [http://www.thijsklompmaker.com Thijs Klompmaker] (and thus no cost, nor an asset)

.
==2016==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Casing pipes]"''' - From China, 100 meter pipes for lining the boreholes: €1172,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Standard waterpumps]"''' - From Belgium, for shallow wells. Costs for 5 pumps: €745,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Solar powered waterpumps]"''' - From China, for deep wells. Costs for 3 complete sets: €1218,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Import Casing Pipes]"''' - Import of casing pipes from China (in)to Ghana, Tema: €1155

.

Total costs 2016: [b]€4290[/b]

.

==2017==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Transport Cast Iron Waterpumps]"''' - Transport case iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Dunkwa-On_Offin - €60

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Pole Solar Pole]"''' - Solar pole for mounting the solar panel on, project Modaso: €208

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Polytank Polytank]"''' - Polytank for storing water, project Modaso: €358

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Import Solar Pumps]"''' - Costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps: €449

.

Total costs 2017: [b]€1075[/b]

.

==2018==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Pickup_truck Pick-up truck]"''' - Second-hand 2001 Nissan Frontier pick-up truck: €4.137,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso_composting_toilet Modaso composting toilet]"''' - Sand for the talud to build the toilet on: €430,-

.

Total costs 2018: [b]€4567[/b]

.

==2019==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement_Modaso Cement Modaso]"''' - Cement for the toilet foundation - project Modaso; 40 bags: [b]€2,333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Rebars_Abrobuasen Steel Sheets and Cement for Abrobuasen]"''' - Rebars, cement, etc for Abrobuasen toilet foundation: [b]€2,078[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Limestone_chippings Limestone chippings]"''' - Limestone chippings for making spirulina raceway concrete (Kwameprekrom); 40 metric tonnes: [b]€3,173[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-19-08-2019 Cement Kwameprekrom]"''' - Cement for making concrete for the water-purification raceway - project Kwameprekrom; 110 bags: [b]€6,416[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Circulation_pump Circulation waterpump]"''' - Circulation waterpump for keeping the water in motion - project Kwameprekrom. [b]€333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Sand_Kwameprekrom Sand for project Kwameprekrom]"''' - Sand for making concrete for the spirulina raceway in Kwameprekrom. [b]€500[/b]

.

Total costs 2019: [b]€14,833[/b]

.

==2020==
Due to COVID19, we have been unable to travel to Ghana to verify financial transactions, and we have therefore suspended buying new materials, and have been working with materials already bought previously. In Mozambique, we initiated a trial in Manhica, to build a spirulina raceway to purify sewage water.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-05-10-2020 Project Manhica]"''' - Cement bought in South Africa for making concrete for the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique - project Manhica: [b]€597[/b]
.

.

==2021==
Due to COVID19, a lack of oversight led to a sharp decline in activities. We built a wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-25-01-2021 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement and sand for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€3450,-[/b]

.

==2022==
In 2022 we made concrete bricks for completing the wall at Santa Isabel.
wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-2022 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€5532,-[/b]

Costs

2024-09-23T22:38:55Z

RRM: /* 2020 */

Accounted Costs Stichting Ecosan Ghana

.

'''"FloFlo"''' - The percussion drill tower used for drilling bore holes: initial costs €3500, owned by [http://www.thijsklompmaker.com Thijs Klompmaker] (and thus no cost, nor an asset)

.
==2016==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Casing pipes]"''' - From China, 100 meter pipes for lining the boreholes: €1172,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Standard waterpumps]"''' - From Belgium, for shallow wells. Costs for 5 pumps: €745,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Solar powered waterpumps]"''' - From China, for deep wells. Costs for 3 complete sets: €1218,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Import Casing Pipes]"''' - Import of casing pipes from China (in)to Ghana, Tema: €1155

.

Total costs 2016: [b]€4290[/b]

.

==2017==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Transport Cast Iron Waterpumps]"''' - Transport case iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Dunkwa-On_Offin - €60

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Pole Solar Pole]"''' - Solar pole for mounting the solar panel on, project Modaso: €208

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Polytank Polytank]"''' - Polytank for storing water, project Modaso: €358

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Import Solar Pumps]"''' - Costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps: €449

.

Total costs 2017: [b]€1075[/b]

.

==2018==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Pickup_truck Pick-up truck]"''' - Second-hand 2001 Nissan Frontier pick-up truck: €4.137,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso_composting_toilet Modaso composting toilet]"''' - Sand for the talud to build the toilet on: €430,-

.

Total costs 2018: [b]€4567[/b]

.

==2019==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement_Modaso Cement Modaso]"''' - Cement for the toilet foundation - project Modaso; 40 bags: [b]€2,333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Rebars_Abrobuasen Steel Sheets and Cement for Abrobuasen]"''' - Rebars, cement, etc for Abrobuasen toilet foundation: [b]€2,078[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Limestone_chippings Limestone chippings]"''' - Limestone chippings for making spirulina raceway concrete (Kwameprekrom); 40 metric tonnes: [b]€3,173[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-19-08-2019 Cement Kwameprekrom]"''' - Cement for making concrete for the water-purification raceway - project Kwameprekrom; 110 bags: [b]€6,416[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Circulation_pump Circulation waterpump]"''' - Circulation waterpump for keeping the water in motion - project Kwameprekrom. [b]€333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Sand_Kwameprekrom Sand for project Kwameprekrom]"''' - Sand for making concrete for the spirulina raceway in Kwameprekrom. [b]€500[/b]

.

Total costs 2019: [b]€14,833[/b]

.

==2020==
Due to COVID19, we have been unable to travel to Ghana to verify financial transactions, and we have therefore suspended buying new materials, and have been working with materials already bought previously. In Mozambique, we initiated a trial in Manhica, to build a spirulina raceway to purify sewage water.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-05-10-2020 Manhica]"''' - Cement bought in South Africa for making concrete for the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique - project Manhica: [b]€597[/b]
.

.

==2021==
Due to COVID19, a lack of oversight led to a sharp decline in activities. We built a wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-25-01-2021 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement and sand for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€3450,-[/b]

.

==2022==
In 2022 we made concrete bricks for completing the wall at Santa Isabel.
wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-2022 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€5532,-[/b]

EcoSan Ghana

2024-09-23T22:35:38Z

RRM: /* Why */

[[Image:EcoSanGhana.jpg|thumb|left| ]]
[[Image:05-FullSwing.jpg|thumb|right| Drilling for water in Modaso]]
[[Image:Composting_toilet.jpg|thumb|left| [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet Dry composting toilet]]]
[[Image:EcoSanGhana-thumbnail.jpg|thumb|right| ]]
[[Image:manager-5.jpg|thumb|left| Nicholas Ofori-Atta, a local manager]]
[[Image:new_gear-2.jpg|thumb|right| ]]
[[Image:new_gear-5.jpg|thumb|left| ]]
[[Image:new_gear-4.jpg|thumb|right| ]]
[[Image:new_gear-3.jpg|thumb|left| ]]
[[Image:new_gear-1.jpg|thumb|right| ]]
EcoSan is short for "Ecological Sanitation".

EcoSan Ghana is an Amsterdam-based non-profit NGO ([http://www.ecosanghana.org/Kvk.pdf KvK #7433316] ; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Taxes.JPG RSIN #856987682]) with [http://www.ecosanghana.org/ANBI.html ANBI status] that aims at providing ecological toilets and clean water supply to rural Ghana (see [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Legislative_Act.pdf Legislative Act]), for now particularly in Atiwa, Fanteakwa, and Upper Denkyira East.

.

==Why==

According to [http://www.unicef.org/media/media_68359.html Unicef], worldwide every day about 1800 children (under the age of 5) die as the result of contaminated water and unhygienic sanitation.
“If 90 school buses filled with kindergartners were to crash every day, with no survivors, the world would take notice. But this is precisely what happens every single day because of poor water, sanitation and hygiene.”

According to [http://water.org/country/ghana/ water.org], in Ghana only 13% of people have access to improved sanitation, 3 million people lack access to safe water, and 23 million people lack access to improved sanitation. Dependency on unsafe water sources is particularly high in rural areas. As a result, in Ghana 25% of all deaths in children under the age of 5 are attributed to diarrhea.

.

==What==

EcoSan Ghana is now working on building [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet dry-composting toilets], and has succesfully drilled for water in [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso Modaso], [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tekyekrom Tekyekrom] and [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Kwameprekrom Kwameprekrom], using a human powered percussion drill tower. As the ground water in Kwameprekrom appeared to be contaminated by sewage water, we are building a spirulina raceway to purify the water. Future projects are planned in Adasewase, Obompe, Nsutem, Anyinam, Anyinam-Ankaase and Bunso. ([http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Beleidsplan Beleidsplan])

.

==The Money==

All expenses are 100% public. But only the refunded/refundable expenses are listed (paid for by EcoSan Ghana). Not the non-refundable (paid for by volunteers). Nobody on [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=EcoSan_board the board of direction] gets a salary. Not a single cent. No expenses are refunded regarding time, travelling, webhosting, fundraising etc. Even if one of them goes to inspect the projects, he/she buys his/her own plane ticket, and this money is not refunded. It is all for the good cause. No salaries are paid, unless for manual labour and land guards.
The ONLY costs paid for, are costs made for directly getting the job done; building materials (cement, steel rebars, etc) and equipment (pipes, pumps, etc). The costs (for EcoSan Ghana) of each project are listed on the "[http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting accounting page]", and are specified on the page dedicated to that project.

Please [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate Make a donation]
.

.

==Cheap or Durable?==

It is said that durable is better, because standard water pumps break down within a few years. That is because in practise, proper, regular maintenance is often simply not doable, because all money locally available is used for investing in things directly related to their own food, such as seeds etc. It is about survival of the individual, and his/her family. Less about something that the community as a whole needs. The ultimate durable waterpump is the [http://www.fairwater.org/ Fairwater Blue Pump]. They do not come more rigid than that. It costs 2500 euro to replace a dysfunctioning pump with a BluePump. But even the BluePump needs some maintenance. And you can buy a cast iron water pump in China for 50 euro. So, for 2500 euro, you can buy 50 pumps in China. For just a little over 100 euro, you can buy a more durable [http://www.clasal.be/nl/gietijzeren-handpomp-59.htm Clasal cast iron pump], in Belgium. For boreholes deeper than 9 meters, we need [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump solar powered waterpumps, which cost a little over 400 euro per set]. This means that if you adopt a network of waterpumps, it is far more cost effective to replace any dysfunctioning pump with a cheap new one, than doing maintenance, repairs and/or install the BluePump. This also means that you can never abandon the pump that you installed, but that was already true. That is why we are working on a manageable network of pumps, so that a dysfunctioning pump is readily replaced with a new one. Hence only the districts of Atiwa, Fanteakwa, and Upper Denkyira East for starters.

Public toilets are a entirely different ball game, but they have at least one thing in common with waterpumps; you cannot abandon them. Hence the network.

.

EcoSan Ghana

2024-09-23T22:32:21Z

RRM:

[[Image:EcoSanGhana.jpg|thumb|left| ]]
[[Image:05-FullSwing.jpg|thumb|right| Drilling for water in Modaso]]
[[Image:Composting_toilet.jpg|thumb|left| [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet Dry composting toilet]]]
[[Image:EcoSanGhana-thumbnail.jpg|thumb|right| ]]
[[Image:manager-5.jpg|thumb|left| Nicholas Ofori-Atta, a local manager]]
[[Image:new_gear-2.jpg|thumb|right| ]]
[[Image:new_gear-5.jpg|thumb|left| ]]
[[Image:new_gear-4.jpg|thumb|right| ]]
[[Image:new_gear-3.jpg|thumb|left| ]]
[[Image:new_gear-1.jpg|thumb|right| ]]
EcoSan is short for "Ecological Sanitation".

EcoSan Ghana is an Amsterdam-based non-profit NGO ([http://www.ecosanghana.org/Kvk.pdf KvK #7433316] ; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Taxes.JPG RSIN #856987682]) with [http://www.ecosanghana.org/ANBI.html ANBI status] that aims at providing ecological toilets and clean water supply to rural Ghana (see [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Legislative_Act.pdf Legislative Act]), for now particularly in Atiwa, Fanteakwa, and Upper Denkyira East.

.

==Why==

According to [http://www.unicef.org/media/media_68359.html Unicef], worldwide every day about 1800 children (under the age of 5) die as the result of contaminated water and unhygienic sanitation.
“If 90 school buses filled with kindergartners were to crash every day, with no survivors, the world would take notice. But this is precisely what happens every single day because of poor water, sanitation and hygiene.”

According to [http://water.org/country/ghana/ water.org], in Ghana only 13% of people have access to improved sanitation, 3 million people lack access to safe water, and 23 million people lack access to improved sanitation. Dependency on unsafe water sources is particularly high in rural areas. As a result, in Ghana 25% of all deaths in children under the age of 5 are attributed to diarrhea.

.

'''What'''

EcoSan Ghana is now working on building [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet dry-composting toilets], and has succesfully drilled for water in [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso Modaso], [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tekyekrom Tekyekrom] and [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Kwameprekrom Kwameprekrom], using a human powered percussion drill tower. As the ground water in Kwameprekrom appeared to be contaminated by sewage water, we are building a spirulina raceway to purify the water. Future projects are planned in Adasewase, Obompe, Nsutem, Anyinam, Anyinam-Ankaase and Bunso. ([http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Beleidsplan Beleidsplan])

.

'''The Money'''

All expenses are 100% public. But only the refunded/refundable expenses are listed (paid for by EcoSan Ghana). Not the non-refundable (paid for by volunteers). Nobody on [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=EcoSan_board the board of direction] gets a salary. Not a single cent. No expenses are refunded regarding time, travelling, webhosting, fundraising etc. Even if one of them goes to inspect the projects, he/she buys his/her own plane ticket, and this money is not refunded. It is all for the good cause. No salaries are paid, whatsoever. The ONLY costs paid for, are costs made for directly getting the job done; building materials (cement, steel rebars, etc) and equipment (pipes, pumps, etc). The costs (for EcoSan Ghana) of each project are listed on the "[http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting accounting page]", and are specified on the page dedicated to that project.

Please [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate Make a donation]
.

.

'''Cheap or Durable?'''

It is said that durable is better, because standard water pumps break down within a few years. That is because in practise, proper, regular maintenance is often simply not doable, because all money locally available is used for investing in things directly related to their own food, such as seeds etc. It is about survival of the individual, and his/her family. Less about something that the community as a whole needs. The ultimate durable waterpump is the [http://www.fairwater.org/ Fairwater Blue Pump]. They do not come more rigid than that. It costs 2500 euro to replace a dysfunctioning pump with a BluePump. But even the BluePump needs some maintenance. And you can buy a cast iron water pump in China for 50 euro. So, for 2500 euro, you can buy 50 pumps in China. For just a little over 100 euro, you can buy a more durable [http://www.clasal.be/nl/gietijzeren-handpomp-59.htm Clasal cast iron pump], in Belgium. For boreholes deeper than 9 meters, we need [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump solar powered waterpumps, which cost a little over 400 euro per set]. This means that if you adopt a network of waterpumps, it is far more cost effective to replace any dysfunctioning pump with a cheap new one, than doing maintenance, repairs and/or install the BluePump. This also means that you can never abandon the pump that you installed, but that was already true. That is why we are working on a manageable network of pumps, so that a dysfunctioning pump is readily replaced with a new one. Hence only the districts of Atiwa, Fanteakwa, and Upper Denkyira East for starters.

Public toilets are a entirely different ball game, but they have at least one thing in common with waterpumps; you cannot abandon them. Hence the network.

.

Nitrate

2023-03-15T14:01:50Z

RRM: /* Author */

[http://www.waiworld.com/waitalk/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?f=20&t=3212 Nitrate discussed on WaiTalk]

Nitrate compounds (eg sodium nitrate) are found naturally on earth as large deposits.
Nitrate (NO3−) naturally results from the breakdown of animal (or human) waste, but nitrate in groundwater mainly comes from fertilizers (eg ammonium nitrate) used in agriculture. Nitrate is much less toxic than ammonia.
Nitrate is naturally consumed by growing plants, which convert nitrate to amino acids, for constructional purposes. Particularly vegetables (the roots, stem and leaves of a plant) may contain high levels of nitrate, as the uptake of nitrate in plants may regularly exceed its assimilation, due to little sunlight exposure (cloudy days), and/or undersupply of molybdenum and iron.

The bioavailability of dietary nitrate is extremely high; almost 100%. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18723086]. In humans, dietary nitrate inhibits iodide uptake, which may disrupt thyroid functioning [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16793945]. A few studies found associations between dietary nitrate and hypothyroidism [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20335813] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22339761] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16440845] or even thyroid cancer [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20824705] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20335813]

==Nitrite (NO2−)==
The salivary glands extract and concentrate plasma nitrate. Bacteria in the mouth convert nitrate to nitrite.
The nitrite ion is known to bond to metal centers in various ways. Nitrites are also used in the food production industry for curing meat or fish, by the addition of a combination of salt, nitrates, nitrite or sugar. That nitrite will mainly be reduced to NO, which may bind to various compounds, such as amines (forming nitrosamines), Hb (forming metHb) or the heme in myoglobin (forming nitrosomyoglobin when raw, and nitrosyl-heme when cooked). Besides spontaneous degradation (in low oxygen conditions), nitrite is also converted to NO by enzymes such as xanthine oxidoreductase, NO synthase and nitrite reductase, and eventually to ammonium and ureum.

==Nitric Oxide (NO)==
Gastric juices convert nitrite to nitrous acid (HNO2, a powerful free radical), which produces NO.
NO is also a by-product of combustion of substances in the air; exhaust fumes are loaded with free radicals such as NO. More NO means more oxidative damage. Antioxidants such as the glutathione system regulate NO and HNO2 levels. NO is essential as a signalling molecule, regulates Th17-cell development, and influences cell metabolism. NO has various properties in various tissues, including anti-inflammatory (because its a free radical), anti-artherosclerotic (because its a 'cleansing agent') and anti-hypertensive because its a powerful vasodilator (increasing blood flow by widening the blood vessels). NO is anti-bacterial (including both harmful and beneficial bacteria), though it protects some harmful bacteria (by inducing resistance of Gram-positive and -negative bacteria to aminoglycosides [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21343448]). Elevated NO is associated with rheumatic diseases, including
systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20609263] and T-cell dysfunction [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18396335][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17462531].
UVB directly induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), increasing nitric oxide synthase [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23396144] and subsequent NO activity. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23554772] Vitamin D3 and a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor both reduce UV-induced ("nitrative") DNA damage, including by suppressing the accumulation of nitric oxide derivatives (incl. nitrite). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23069805]. NO levels also need to remain unelevated to protect organs such as the liver from ischemic damage, to protect the gastric mucosa and to protect against metHb induced hypoxia. In specific conditions, additional NO may be beneficial (eg myointimal hyperplasia). There are various pathways to create the required NO from protein (by nitric oxide synthases), as arginine (supplying the NO) may be converted from other amino acids (eg other amino acids > glutamate > ornithine > citrulline > arginine). Physical exercise (induced local hypoxia) naturally increases endogenous NO production, because more NO is required (increasing blood flow during exercise).

==Nitrosamines==
In the stomach (not in colon = neutral pH) nitrite forms HNO2, which produces NO. Adding NO to a compound is called nitrosation. Nitrosation of amines leads to the formation of nitrosamines. Most nitrosamines are carcinogenic. Additional nitrosation leads to the formation of N-nitroso compounds, which are even more carcinogenic. High nitrite (from nitrate or food directly), high protein (amines) and high heme (red meat) favor formation of nitroso compounds. Unsaturated fats (as scavengers of nitrosating agents[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6539731]) inhibit formation of some nitrosamines [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20112267]. Vitamin C (and other antioxidants) favors nitrosylation instead of nitrosation, thus also inhibiting formation of nitroso compounds. This property is however reversed in the presence of "fats" [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17785370] (but not olive oil[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9600360] nor coconut oil[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6533020]), except for the antioxidants ferulic and caffeic acid. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20026204]. Soy sauce produced in Japan[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6398293][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6574460], Dried fish, bean paste and pickled vegetables are susceptible to nitrosation, but not soy sauce produced in the US.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3908924] The greatest increase in mutagenicity by nitrosation is caused in vegetables, pickles, seaweed and alcoholic beverages.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6398297] Various compounds may act as mutagenic precursors upon nitrosation (eg indoles in Chinese cabbage[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3916206], tyramine (yielding mutagenic 4-(2-aminoethyl)-6-diazo-2,4-cyclohexadienone)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6398293] in processed meats, fermented foods (incl. soy sauce))

Nitrosation also increases mutagenicity of [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) HCAs]. Nitrite increases mutagenicity of MeIQ up to 3-fold, while that of nitrosated MeIQ was further enhanced up to 15-fold. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1373865] Nitrosated or N-hydroxylated TRP-P-2 directly induces DNA recombination. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7730138]

Studies have found positive correlations between dietary nitrate intake and digestive malignancy morbidity rates [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21513058] risk of epithelial ovarian cancer [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21934624] breast cancer risk [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20574916] T-cell lymphoma [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20204494] gastric cancer risk [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19449378], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11855578], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11588901] and non-Hodgkin lymphoma and colorectal cancer [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12051796][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10074917].

==Peroxynitrite (NO3-)==
When NO reacts with superoxide (a free radical of the immune system), peroxynitrite is formed [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17237348]. Peroxynitrite has the same formula as nitrate (NO3-), but a different structure. Its extremely reactive and may damage many molecules, including DNA and proteins. Most of the damage done by peroxynitrite is due to the free radicals it produces (carbonate radical and nitrogen dioxide). Peroxynitrite predominantly reacts with carbon dioxide to form nitrosoperoxycarbonate, which forms carbonate radical and nitrogen dioxide, as a pair of caged radicals. These two radicals either recombine to form carbon dioxide and nitrate, or become free radicals.

==Methemoglobinemia==
Methemoglobinemia (a type of [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Anemia anemia]) is characterized by elevated levels of oxidized hemoglobin (= methemoglobin = metHb).
Normally, metHb levels are below 1% (of total Hb). Only when oxidative stress cannot sufficiently be prevented, the normal Fe2+ in hemoglobin (Hb) is oxidized to Fe3+ (in metHb). This results in a decreased capacity to release oxygen to tissues. The higher the level of metHb, the less oxygen released, which may lead to hypoxia. Normally, spontaneously formed metHb is reduced to Hb by mainly NADH metHb reductase, but also the vitamin C and glutathione enzyme systems. Exposure to nitrates may accelerate the rate of formation of metHb up to one-thousandfold, overwhelming the protective enzyme systems and acutely increasing metHb levels. One study found a direct proportionate relationship between nitrate ingestion and serum metHb level [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22187853]. Another study found a direct correlation between nitrate levels in water samples and serum metHb level [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20701008].

Infants are particularly vulnerable to methemoglobinemia due to nitrate metabolizing triglycerides present at higher concentrations than at other stages of development. Children drinking high-nitrate water are more likely to have methemoglobinemia [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18155958]. Young children may also get severe methemoglobinemia from consuming high-nitrate vegetables [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16809905]

Other causes/contributing factors of methemoglobinaemia include dehydration caused by diarrhea, sepsis, the use of antibiotics (trimethoprim, sulfonamides and dapsone [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18090884]), local anesthetics (especially articaine and prilocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18037845]), and others such as aniline dyes, metoclopramide, chlorates and bromates.

==Nutrient==
In humans, the nutrient that supplies nitrogen (N) is protein (which may yield NO, to the extend that it is required). All amino acids (protein) contain N. Excess protein is eliminated through the ammonium > ureum pathway (not via NO). Amino acids are required for endogenous protein production (constructional purposes) and mono-amines (eg serotonin, dopamin, adrenalin), and NO. A lack of dietary protein will primarily result in muscle degradation before resulting in a lack of signalling molecules (NO, serotonin, dopamin etc). A number of amino acids cannot be endogenously produced by humans. Plants can synthesize all amino acids from N obtained from the soil, hence nitrate being a nutrient for plants. In humans increased dietary nitrate (unlike dietary protein) results in elevated NO rather than amino acid synthesis, evoking drug-like effects rather than being a nutrient. Nitrate belongs to a group of drugs, the nitrates.

==Drug==
Nitrates are a large group of drugs, including [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitroglycerin nitroglycerin], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isosorbide_dinitrate isosorbide dinitrate] (Isordil) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isosorbide_mononitrate isosorbide mononitrate] (Imdur, Ismo, Monoket). In our mitochondria, all these nitrates are converted to NO by aldehyde dehydrogenase. NO is a potent vasodilator.
Another group of drugs are the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkyl_nitrite alkyl nitrites], including [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyl_nitrite amyl nitrites]. Their nitrite-group is responsible for their biological properties, which includes vasolidation (and psychoactive as an inhalant), as its a source of NO. Many of these drugs are used as heart medication.

Physiologically, blood pressure is constantly monitored through pressure receptors and osmoreceptors, and regulated through prostaglandins, bradykinin, adrenergic stimulation and calcium concentrations in vascular smooth muscle cells. Vasolidation may be cGMP mediated (activated by NO), and it may be cAMP mediated (through adrenergic stimulation). UV exposure increases NO, but reduces cAMP. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22235420]

==Athletic Performance==
A local lack of oxygen (hypoxia) stimulates NO release locally. NO is a powerful vasodilator; it widens the blood vessels (decreasing blood pressure), resulting in increased blood flow, enabling the supply of more oxygen where needed (eg muscles), evoked by local hypoxia. Increased nitrate intake increases athletic performance in the last phase of a run [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22709704], when hypoxia in muscles is at its peak. Baseline plasma nitrite level independently predicts exercise capacity in highly trained professionals [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22609879]. Nitrate supplementation (eg beetroot juice) increases athletic performance [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22248502], all due to increased supply of oxygen to hypoxic muscles.

==Author==
Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966
Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)

Oxysterols

2023-03-15T14:01:30Z

RRM: /* Author */

Oxysterols may be formed by cooking food that contains cholesterol, through cholesterol oxidation. Oxysterols from ordinary foodstuff are absorbed in the human intestinal tract.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9745108] Endogenously, they may be formed enzymatically, or through oxidation as well.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3941159/](Full Free Text) Oxysterols are widely distributed in nature, being found in the blood and tissues of animals and man.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1772414] Some oxysterols are essential for the normal physiology of the hepatic, central nervous and vascular systems [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19939198], as well as in inflammation and immunity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18650918/][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2626438/] In healthy people, endogenously formed oxysterols (7α-OHC, 24-OHC, 27-OHC) are most abundant (relative to all oxysterols).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7778789] Many oxysterols are cytotoxic. Most research suggests that certain oxysterols may cause cell death, and have been strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19345313]

==Oxidation==

* In water, cholesterol oxidizes more rapidly. But at 125°C, autoxidation of cholesterol also occurs in the dry state.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8246692] Heating at 100°C for 8 hours, 5% of cholesterol was oxidized. The identified oxidation products (52% of total) were: 7-ketoC (42%), 7β-OHC (20%), β-epoxyC (16%), α-epoxyC (12%), 7α-OHC (7%) and 25β-OHC (3%). A diet enriched with such oxidized cholesterol resulted in a 100% increase in fatty streak lesions in the aorta.[http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/18/6/977.long] (free full text)
* Heat-treatment of cholesterol caused 30% oxidation; the major oxidation products: 7β-OHC, 7-keto-C, α-epoxyC and β-epoxyC. In the rats given the oxidized cholesterol, 6% of the oxysterol load was absorbed and incorporated into lymph chylomicrons, resulting in a twofold increase in the cholesterol and triglyceride content. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9270982]
* Besides heat, cholesterol may also be oxidized (endogenously) by reactive agents such as copper, myoglobin and peroxynitrite, yielding 7-keto-C, 7β-OHC, 7α-OHC, β-epoxyC and α-epoxyC.[http://www.jlr.org/content/37/11/2361.long]
* Fatty streaks in the aorta may contain 7-ketoC, 7β-OHC, β-epoxyC, α-epoxyC, 7α-OHC and 27-OHC, which are hardly (or not at all) present in normal aorta.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11697115]
* Cholesterol incorporated in a membrane is relatively protected aginst oxidation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1491613] Normally, unoxidized cholesterol levels are over 1000-fold greater than oxysterol levels. In atherosclerotic plaque, the cholesterol:oxysterol ratio is much lower.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9920502/]
* Serum cholesterol is increased after consuming unoxidized cholesterol, similar to partially (5%) oxidized cholesterol, but only the oxidized cholesterol (25 mg/day) diet resulted in a 100% increase in fatty streak lesions in the aorta.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9633940/]
* Oxysterols are found in the human atheroma [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12532844], and accumulate in macrophage foam cells. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC507038/pdf/970461.pdf] Oxysterols are generally toxic to endothelial cells [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18068200] and macrophages.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17846428]

==List of Important Oxysterols==

* 4-beta-hydroxycholesterol (4β-OHC) - a minor product of endogenous cholesterol conversion.[http://www.jbc.org/content/276/42/38685.full] (free full text)
* 5 alpha,6 alpha-epoxycholesterol (α-epoxyC) - is cytotoxic [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18445305]
* 5 beta,6 beta-epoxycholesterol (β-epoxyC) - is cytotoxic [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1271/bbb.120758#aHR0cDovL3d3dy50YW5kZm9ubGluZS5jb20vZG9pL3BkZi8xMC4xMjcxL2JiYi4xMjA3NThAQEAw], and its levels are dramatically increased in hypercholesterolemic plasma samples.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7835746]
* 5 alpha,6 beta-epoxycholesterol (5α,6β-diOHC)
* 7-hydroperoxycholesterol (7-OOHC) - this primary 7- oxidation product of cholesterol is the most cytotoxic oxygenated lipid present in oxidized LDL.[http://www.pnas.org/content/91/24/11452.abstract?ijkey=3d6214aa8a87c5be8228c1e230e6e2888530f700&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha][http://www.pnas.org/content/91/24/11452.full.pdf Free Full PDF] It is rapidly decomposed into 7α-OHC, 7β-OHC and 7-ketoC, which may be found in relatively high concentrations in foam cells and fatty streaks.[http://www.jlr.org/content/38/9/1730.full.pdf+html] (free full pdf)
* 7-alpha-hydroxycholesterol (7α-OHC) - mostly the first step in endogenous bile synthesis [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867400807631] (full free text), but also a decomposition product of 7-OOHC. The mean levels of 7α-OHC in subjects with severe coronary atherosclerosis were significantly higher than in controls.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23889156]
* 7-alpha-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one (7α-OHC4)
* 7-beta-hydroxycholesterol (7β-OHC) - 7β-OHC is cytotoxic [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1271/bbb.120758#aHR0cDovL3d3dy50YW5kZm9ubGluZS5jb20vZG9pL3BkZi8xMC4xMjcxL2JiYi4xMjA3NThAQEAw], and its serum levels significantly associate with progression of carotid atherosclerosis.[http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/95/4/840.long]
* 7-ketocholesterol (7-ketoC) = 7-oxocholesterol - is the most abundant oxysterol of nonenzymatic origin in atherosclerotic plaques.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC507038/pdf/970461.pdf](free full pdf) It is cytotoxic [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1271/bbb.120758#aHR0cDovL3d3dy50YW5kZm9ubGluZS5jb20vZG9pL3BkZi8xMC4xMjcxL2JiYi4xMjA3NThAQEAw], rather stable [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12670187] and its levels are dramatically increased in hypercholesterolemic plasma samples.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7835746]
* 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC)
* 24,25-epoxycholesterol (24,25-epoxyC) - is formed endogenously in any cell that may form cholesterol. It elicits effects on multiple levels of cellular cholesterol homeostasis [http://www.jbc.org/content/283/2/700.long](free full text) and regulates cholesterol synthesis in the liver [http://www.jlr.org/content/42/4/649.full](free full text)[http://www.jbc.org/content/260/25/13391.abstract?ijkey=f2b186c9ad4d8825edb889ee9bc074e1ffaaa09c&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha] and neuronal cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22178193] It may accumulate in the liver [http://www.jbc.org/content/260/25/13391.full.pdf+html] (free full pdf) Without 24,25-epoxyC, acute cholesterol synthesis is exaggerated.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22178193]
* 22-hydroxycholesterol (22-OHC)
* 24-hydroxycholesterol (24 OHC) - In humans, 24-hydroxycholesterol is predominantly formed in the brain [http://www.pnas.org/content/96/13/7238.full][http://www.jlr.org/content/39/8/1594.full] (free full texts), and eventually 'leaks' into the blood, prior to ending up as bile acid or being excreted.[http://www.jlr.org/content/35/12/2241.full.pdf+html] (free full pdf)
* 25-beta-hydroxycholesterol (25β-OHC)
* 25-hydroxycholesterol (25-OHC) - is enzymatically formed, and endogenously present in very low concentrations.[http://www.jbc.org/content/270/35/20278.full](free full text) [http://www.jlr.org/content/35/12/2241.full.pdf+html](free full pdf). 25-OHC is cytotoxic [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1271/bbb.120758#aHR0cDovL3d3dy50YW5kZm9ubGluZS5jb20vZG9pL3BkZi8xMC4xMjcxL2JiYi4xMjA3NThAQEAw] and has marked antiviral activity against pathogenic enveloped and non-enveloped viruses.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4265783/](full free text)
* 26-hydroxycholesterol (26-OHC), which includes 27-hydroxycholesterol (27-OHC) = (25R)-26-Hydroxycholesterol [http://physrev.physiology.org/content/80/1/361.long] - 5% to 10% of the total conversion of cholesterol into bile acids starts with the conversion of cholesterol into 27-OHC.[http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/16/2/208.full][http://www.jlr.org/content/40/7/1194.full] (free full texts) Accumulation of cholesterol in atheromas (macrophages, endothelial cells) is counteracted by conversion of cholesterol into 27-OHC, which is transported to the liver.[http://www.pnas.org/content/91/18/8592.full.pdf](free full pdf) [http://www.jbc.org/content/272/42/26253.full](Free full text) This explains the abundant presence of 27-OHC in atheromas.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11697115] The levels of 26-OHC in atherosclerotic aorta of human subjects increase with severity of the disease.[http://www.atherosclerosis-journal.com/article/0021-9150(70)90078-X/abstract][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5573274] 27-OHC has remarkable antiviral activity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4265783/]

==HDL / LDL==
HDL and LDL are lipoproteins transporting cholesterol, and oxysterols.
Natural oxysterols that are intermediates in cholesterol synthesis (24S- and 27-hydroxycholesterol) are transported with both HDL and LDL [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17107679]. Cholesterol oxidation products are not equally distributed among plasma lipoproteins.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3593458][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7990662]
Oxidized fatty acids in the diet contribute to serum lipoprotein oxidation. Oxidized fatty acids in the diet accelerate atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits.[http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/16/4/533.full]
Elevated levels of oxidized LDL correlate with subclinical atherosclerosis and predict future cardiovascular events [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12117732/][http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/22/7/1162.long Free Full Text] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16043640/][http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/112/5/651.long Free Full Text]
Elevated LDL levels represent one of the most important risk factors for atherosclerosis, cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Both native and oxidized LDL are potent growth factors and regulate several other growth factors, for several cell types. Furthermore, the mitogenic effects of oxLDL may be mediated through lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), lactosylceramide (LacCer) sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15320816]
LDL is more oxidised in the plasma of dementia patients although total cholesterol levels remained unchanged. Oxidized LDL disrupts blood brain barrier function.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26461292]
Oxidized β-VLDL leads to increased lipid accumulation in smooth muscle cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2751751][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1900191]
Macrophages cannot limit the uptake of lipids. The uptake of oxidized LDL by macrophages is a key initial event in atherogenesis.
(oxy)cholesterol efflux from macrophages is attributed to HDL (facilitated by apolipoprotein E and inhibited by some oxysterols [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8937522]).
HDL protects macrophages from apoptosis induced by loading with free cholesterol or oxidized LDL. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17846428] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1986618/ Full Free Text]

ABCA-1 and ABCG-1 proteins mediate the efflux of oxysterols (and cholesterol) from macrophages [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19895785]
(for transportation to the liver), which in turn is mediated by HDL.
The effect of ABCA-1 and ABCG-1 proteins is inhibited by [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Maillard_reaction AGEs and ALEs (Maillard reaction products)], thus inhibiting the protective effect of HDL.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21957962l] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3201908 Free Full Text]
Oxidized LDL also inhibits the protective effect of HDL, by inhibiting PON-1 (human serum paraoxonase, which is associated to HDL)
PON-1 can eliminate oxidized LDL (by hydrolysis of oxLDL-lipid peroxides) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11233155],
similar to PAF acetylhydrolase (which is also associated to HDL). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9287290] [http://www.jbc.org/content/272/37/22975.long Full Free Text]
HDL inhibits LDL oxidation, as about 45% of the total plasma oxysterols (plus 35-40% of the total plasma lipoxidation products) is associated with HDL transporters, accounting for the protective effect of HDL. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7981657]

==Sphingomyelin & Calcification==

* Aging is the single most important risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, and increased vessel rigidity appears to be a major hallmark of cardiovascular aging.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16930126]
* Sphingomyelin in arterial tissue (and relative to lecithin) increases with age.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5355343]
* Oxysterols promote atherosclerosis through sphingomyelin-mediated arterial calcification and thromboxane-mediated interruption of blood flow. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3584645/]
* Oxidized LDL induces an immediate and oscillatory increase in intracellular calcium.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18988891]
* oxidized LDL-induced apoptosis of endothelial cells is calcium-dependent.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9765267]
* Oxidative modification of LDL results in the production of lipid peroxides and the conversion of phosphatidylcholine to lysophosphatidylcholine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10634810]
* In bone tissue, locally synthesized (Smpd3 encoded-) sphingomyelinase stimulates bone calcification. Sphingomyelinase cleaves sphingomyelin to generate bioactive lipid metabolites (ceramide).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3144407/]
* Lowering plasma sphingomyelin reduces atherosclerotic lesions. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20814016]
* Plasma sphingomyelin concentration is an independent predictor of coronary artery disease.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17963772] [
* Inhibiting sphingomyelin synthesis decreases atherosclerosis in mice.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21910087]
* the plasma from cardiac catheterized patients suffering from chest pains contained higher levels of oxysterols.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9513931]
* the plasma of patients with cardiovascular disease contains excess concentration of oxysterols, resulting in more calcium in endothelial cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10704631]
* Oxysterols (25- and 26-hydroxycholesterol) have an injurious effect on arterial cells. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8424097]
* Oxysterols (7 alpha OHC, 7 beta OHC, alpha epoxyC, beta epoxyC, 7ketoC, 26OHC, TriolC) replace cholesterol in the cell membrane, increasing calcium influx.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7790692]
* 27OHC decreases phosphatidylethanolamine and AA, and increases sphingomyelin, LA and calcium.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16154158]
* The arteries from patients who had had coronary artery bypass operations, contained elevated concentrations of oxysterols and sphingomyelin, increasing calcium influx into endothelial cells. The phospholipd sphingomyelin fraction in replaced arteries was 48.2%, compared to 24% in healthy arteries, and to 10% in arterial tissue from umbilical cords. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12031266]
* the newborn human placenta contained only about 10% sphingomyelin and 50% phosphatidylcholine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3584645/ Full Free Text]
* Depending on the oxidation rate and the ratio of oxysterols plus thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) versus lysolecithin (obtained from phosphatidylcholine, inhibiting thromboxane synthesis), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10938412] oxidized LDL may stimulate thromboxane release by platelets [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9777653], increasing blood clotting.

==Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)==
* Sphingomyelin deposition and metabolism occurs in the atherosclerotic plaque, leading to the formation of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P). S1P receptor 2 (S1PR2) is expressed in bone marrow-derived macrophages and in macrophage-like foam cells in atherosclerotic plaques. S1PR2 retains macrophages in atherosclerotic plaques. S1PR2 signaling in the plaque macrophage regulates macrophage retention and inflammatory cytokine secretion, thereby promoting atherosclerosis. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20947824] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3013369/ Full Free Text]
* Macrophages internalize oxidized LDL immune complexes (oxLDL-IC) and transform into activated foam cells. S1P may be generated extracellularly in response to oxidized LDL immune complexes.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16516816]
* oxLDL induces the immediate activation of sphingosine kinase (SK), which can increase sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) levels by phosphorylating sphingosine. Both S1P and oxLDL block macrophage apoptosis and producing calcium oscillations. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19965613] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2853467/ Full Free Text]
* S1P is mainly released from activated platelets. release of S1P from activated platelets was increased by enhanced platelet sensitivity in hypercholesterolemia, which potentiated the ox-LDL-induced VSMC proliferation via EDG-1 receptor pathway.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18571912]
* Sphingosine-1-phosphate (SPP) is a major (and potent) [http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/content/96/10/3431.long Full Free Text] polar sphingolipid metabolite (from ceramides, derived from sphingomyelin) released from activated platelets that (also) acts as an intracellular lipid messenger, regulating calcium mobilisation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15992170]
* S1P is a mediator in inflammation and atherogenesis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12618211]
* S1P acts via multiple signaling pathways. S1P induces vasoconstriction in vivo. S1P can act through both receptors and a novel intracellular pathway to activate store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) in vascular smooth muscle cells. Because S1P-induced SOCE contributes to vessel constriction and is increased in proliferative VSMCs, it is likely that S1P/SOCE signaling in proliferative VSMCs may play a role in vascular dysfunction such as atherosclerosis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21270296] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3074633/ Full Free Text]
* TNFalpha rapidly triggers S1P generation and activation of SPHK. Moreover, our data shows that SPHK1 is the isoform activated by TNFalpha, and plays an essential role on the TNFalpha-triggered intracellular Ca2+ signals.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16575915]
* The endothelium can evoke relaxations (dilatations) of the underlying vascular smooth muscle, by releasing vasodilator substances, particularly nitric oxide (NO), synthesized by nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). The release of NO is down-regulated by oxidative stress and oxidized LDL.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20082095] S1P inhibits IL-1beta induction of NO production and iNOS expression in rat vascular smooth muscle cells through multiple mechanisms, playing an important role in the ptrogression of atherosclerosis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18171908]

* oxLDL induces neutral sphingomyelinase activity, evoking sphingomyelin turnover to ceramide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9582320] [http://www.jbc.org/content/273/21/12893.long Full Free Text] oxLDL increased the activities of both acidic and alkaline ceramidases as well as sphingosine kinase, elevating S1P. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10419457] [http://www.jbc.org/content/274/31/21533.long Full Free Text]

==Thromboxane==

* Depending on the oxidation rate and the ratio of oxysterols plus thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) versus lysolecithin (obtained from phosphatidylcholine, inhibiting thromboxane synthesis), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10938412] oxidized LDL may stimulate thromboxane release by platelets [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9777653], increasing blood clotting.
* Low concentrations of oxLDL inhibit thromboxane release by platelets and intracellular calcium.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15506238]
* Elevated oxLDL triggers platelet activation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21847583]
* Aggregating platelets at sites of atherosclerotic injury release thromboxane A2(TXA2). Even low concentration of TXA2 released from aggregating platelets may potentiate the mitogenic effect of oxLDL at sites of vascular damage.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11133169]
* Selenoproteins in the vascular wall protect against oxysterol-induced vascular damage. When selenium (glutathione peroxidase) deficient, oxysterols elevate plasma thromboxane.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11947907]

[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3584645/ Full Free Text]

==Author==
Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966
Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)

Melanoidins

2023-03-15T14:01:10Z

RRM: /* Author */

Melanoidins are [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Maillard_reaction Maillard reaction] products. They are responsible for food browning / food coloring and aroma. Melanoidins may have a suppressive effect on allergic reactions.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17131457] Key aroma compounds are often present only in trace concentrations of 1 microg/kg to 1 mg/kg. Nevertheless, they contribute to the respective flavor because of their low odor-perception thresholds.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18079482] In roasted coffee, the level of melanoidins correlates with the level of phenolic compounds.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18680301]

==Precursors==
As melanoidins are [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Maillard_reaction Maillard reaction] products, they are principally formed from the reaction of amino acids and sugars. Some sugars are more likely to yield melanoidins than others. Compared to glucose, glucose-6-phosphate generates more melanoidins, 'stabilizing' deoxyosones (1-DG and 3-DG; highly reactive Maillard intermediates).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12744667]

==Inhibitors==
As melanoidins are Maillard products, [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Maillard_reaction#Inhibitors compounds that inhibit the Maillard reaction], also inhibit formation of melanoidins. Odorous thiols, for example, bind to melanoidins, and, consequently, are responsible for the decrease in the sulfury-roasty odor quality observed shortly after preparation of coffee brew.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11782201]

==Intermediates==
Deoxyhexosuloses (eg 1,4-dideoxyhexosulose), formed from Amadori compounds, may give way to the formation of volatile flavour substances and melanoidins. Oligomeric carbohydrates may yield alpha-dicarbonyls such as 3-deoxypentosulose [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11455781]

* '''(Fur)furan''' (5-oxacyclopenta-1,3-diene or 1,4-epoxy-1,3-butadiene) is a toxic heterocyclic organic compound, readily converted to other compounds. Furan is present in coffee, canned and jarred food, and baby food. Degradation of hexoses yields formic acid, acetic acid and the splitting off of carbon units, which (when recombining to acetaldehyde and glycolaldehyde) may render furan in the presence of alanine, threonine or serine. In the absence of amino acids, furan may also be formed under roasting conditions, from the intact sugar skeleton. The total furan levels in cooked vegetables were increased by spiking with hexoses. However, in pumpkin puree, only about 20% of furan was formed from sugars[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18439018]

* '''Furfural''' (an aldehyde) is an important intermediate compound of the Maillard reaction of pentose or vitamin C. Furfural may react with lysine to form furpipate.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18448836]

* '''2-acetylpyrrole'''

* '''5-methylfurfural'''

* '''2-carboxaldehydefuran''' and (from glyoxal) '''glycolaldehyde''' are by far the most effective color precursors in heated mixtures of alanine and carbohydrate degradation products. They are readily transformed into hydroxylated 1,4-dialkyl-1, 4-dihydropyrazines [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10563904]

* '''2-methylfuran''' may be formed from threonine and degraded hexoses.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18439018]

* '''2-acetylfuran''' may be formed from glycine and ribose (or other reducing sugars).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19090713]

* '''3-amino-4,5-dimethylfuran-2(5H)-one'''; from pyruvic acid and glycine, or from glyoxylic acid and alanine.

* '''4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3-(2H)-furanone''' (Furaneol); an aroma volatile of cooked beef.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11548151]

* (Norfuraneol); an aroma volatile of cooked beef.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11548151]

* '''2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone''' (DMHF; a caramel-like aroma compound). Formed from methylglyoxal and glycine or cysteine (depending on pH) at 120 degrees C for 1 h.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593173]

* '''4-hydroxy-2(or 5)-ethyl-5(or 2)-methyl-3(2H)-furanone''' (HEMF); a fragrant reductone.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10708985]

* '''5-hydroxymethylfurfural''' (HMF; from glucose-glutamic acid) Furfurals are aroma compounds. HMF is one of the major intermediate products in the Maillard reaction, present in a wide variety of foods. It may become more mutagenic after activation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8075362][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7955080] HMF is considered the most important intermediate product of the acid-catalyzed dehydration reaction of hexoses and/or Maillard reaction. It is used as an indicator of quality deterioration in a wide range of foods. It is cytotoxic, weakly genotoxic and has tumoral effects but studies suggest that HMF does not pose a serious health risk.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19879342]

* '''5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furaldehyde''' from glycose-glycine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640567]

* '''Furosine'''

==End-products==
Common flavor compounds may have protein cross-linking properties (contributing to aging). '''2-hydroxy-3-methylcyclopent-2-enone''' (cyclotene), which is a common food flavor, has such cross-linking properties.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10552435]

* '''5-hydroxymethyl-3(2H)-furanone'''
* '''5-(1,2-dihydroxyethyl)-3(2H)-furanone''' (which may further react with amines)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8273421]
* '''1,6-dimethyl-2,4-dihydroxy-3-(2H)-furanone''' (acetylformoin)
* '''4,5-dimethyl-3-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone''' (Sotolone; a naturally occuring taste enhancer)
* '''3-Hydroxy-2-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one''' (Maltol); A naturally occuring flavor enhancer in the bark of larch tree, pine needles, and in roasted malt, produced from glucose and glycine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640567]
* '''2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-4H-pyran-4-one'''
* '''2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4(H)-pyran-4-one'''
* '''2-Alkyl-(2H)-thiapyrans''' and '''2-alkylthiophenes'''; Cows and lambs fed supplements high in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids will yield more 2-Alkyl-(2H)-thiapyrans and 2-alkylthiophenes (with only low odor potency) when their meat is cooked.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10888561]

==Author==
Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966
Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)

Styrene

2023-03-15T14:00:48Z

RRM: /* Author */

Styrene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), formed during incomplete combustion of organic compounds (as in cigarette smoke[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10781869]) and a (one of many) [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Maillard_reaction Maillard reaction product]. Styrene polymeres are industrially produced for use in various products, including dyes and disposables.

==Formation in cooked foods==
Styrene is considered the phenylalanine-glucose counterpart of [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Acrylamide acrylamide] (instead of asparagine-glucose). In the presence of sugars, phenylalanine, similarly to asparagine and lysine, can undergo carbonyl-assisted decarboxylative deamination reaction to generate styrene[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315399]. Phenylalanine heated together with 1-hydroxyacetone or methylglyoxal yielded only 0.03 mol% styrene.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680933]

==Health effects==
Styrene is metabolized / activated in the human body to phenylglyoxylic acid (alters dopamine levels)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9745934] or genotoxic styrene-7,8-oxide (SO).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11738266] SO is neurotoxic (synergistically with acrylamide).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8442002] Styrene is not carcinogenic[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10048130][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7818769], but hepatotoxicity (when metabolized to SO) in glutathione-depleted mice.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7712112] Environmentally, commercially manufactured polystyrene nanoparticles are taken up by algae and accumulate in fish, resulting in weight loss and altered cholesterol distribution[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22384193], though may be eliminated within bile.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19799923] In rats, prenatal styrene exposure decreases postnatal serotonine and catecholamine levels in the brain.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11161651] Chronic exposure causes remodelling of the intestinal villi[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22327877] and structural changes in apolipoproteins.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21978381] The testis may be the major target for styrene toxicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17120534] In rats, prenatal low level exposure to estrogenic styrene trimers obstructed genital organ development, and disrupted the endocrine systems of male rat offspring.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17259338]

==Migration from disposables==
Similar to acrylonitrile[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1999304], benzene[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2354739], bisphenol A and phthalates, plastic drink containers[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22043764]] and plastic liners in cans and other polystyrene foam packages[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17164219] are a source of styrene exposure from food/drinks. Except for polystyrene egg cartons, which leak no styrene into eggs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7797174] Bottled drinking water may contain styrene (up to 29.5 mcg/L; increased to 69.53 mcg/L after 1 yr storage) leached from the polystyrene (PS) bottle.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17915704] Migration of styrene from disposable cups (styrofoam and PS, not paper cups) into drinks highly depends on fat content and temperature of drinks.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19750020]
Up to 150 mg styrene /kg was transferred from polystyrene disposables into sunflower oil and up to 90 mg/kg into individual serving milk products.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8314394] Butter[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17705437], yoghurt[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17364921][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9666894] may also contain styrene, as the migration of styrene from packaging material very much depends on fat-contents of the liquid/food (and temperature).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9829045] In the US, the exposure to styrene from polystyrene food-contact articles is estimated at 9 mcg per day, compared to 1 to 4 mcg /day for UK residents.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7480894]

==Naturally produced==
Similar to toluene and ethylbenzene, styrene is also released during food decaying processes[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21541778] (as in spoiled salmon[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17061824]).
Olives and olive oil may also contain styrene[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21111151], due to the uptake of aromatics, metabolized into styrene.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7785357] Other vegetable oils contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as well.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3765851] Barley storage molds[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2641484] (through enzymatic hydrolysis) and Blue-cheese fungi (eg Gorgonzola, camembert[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17291386]) also produce styrene, as well as the plastics used for packaging.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20461461] Due to gram-negative bacteria in dairy, all raw milk cheeses also contain styrene (and o-dichlorobenzene; a derivative of benzene).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16013377] Cinnamon constituents naturally contain the styrene structure (incl. cinnamic acid[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17360064]), which may get released due to the activity of fungal species present on cinnamon.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19723212]

==Human exposure==
Total daily styrene exposure is estimated at maximally 0.17 mcg/kg bodyweight (bw)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17364922] and human lifetime risk for tumors is estimated to be very low.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11738266] In another study the daily styrene exposure is estimated to range from 18.2 to 55.2 mcg per person (roughly 0.2 to 0.8 mcg/kg bw) with the greatest proportion coming from inhaled styrene (exhaust fumes, cigarette smoke, indoor heating).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10781869] In Canada daily intakes of styrene for the general population were estimated at 0.004 to 0.17 mcg/kg bw from ambient air, 0.07 to 0.10 mcg/kg bw from indoor air and up to 0.58 mcg/kg from food. The estimated intakes from drinking-water and soil were negligible. Potential exposure from cigarette smoke (20 cigarettes / day) was estimated to be 2.86 mcg/kg bw per day.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8070873]

==Author==
Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966
Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)

Acrylamide

2023-03-15T13:59:58Z

RRM: /* Author */

Acrylamide (2-propenamide) is a known neurotoxin[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7131587][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22841601] and carcinogen[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22906972], present in heated foods (incl. bread) and cigarette smoke.
Environmentally, it may be the result of decomposition of polyacrylamide (in herbicides). Acrylamide is industrially produced for various purposes (eg polymeres). It decomposes in the presence of acids, bases and oxidizing agents, rendering ammonia or nitrogen oxides. Endogenously, acrylamide is metabolized ('activated' by P450 enzymes[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19190172]) to glycidamide (a DNA-reactive epoxide[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21878374]).

==Acrylamide formation==
Amides are derivates of ammonia or (carboxylated) amines. Acrylamide is particularly formed in heated plant foods (>120°C, peaking at 150°C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16546881], between 160-180°C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15113184], or at 210°C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14726273]) and 25-30 minutes cooking time[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438303]). Acrylamide as a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Maillard_reaction Maillard reaction-product] is yielded by the reaction of '''A''' + '''B'''.

* '''A)''' amino acids, particularly asparagine. Through the acrylic acid pathway, acrylamide may also be formed from glutamic acid[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18029078], carnosine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16317786], aspartic acid[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14565766] or beta-alanine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315400], or indirectly even cysteine or serine (> pyruvic acid > acrylic acid).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438299]
* '''B)''' may be carbonyls (eg yielded by lipid oxidation) or reducing sugars (sugars yielding aldehydes; such as glucose (very effectively[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18624441]) in starches, and other aldoses, as well as ketoses and fructose)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22924541]. In this reaction, glucans such as glucose, starch and cellulose are interchangeable[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21252006], but asparagine more readily reacts with glucose than > galactose > fructose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15506824] > sucrose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16366686], though others report fructose > glucose (or alpha-dicarbonyls).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037219] Also potent precursors/intermediates are [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Acrylamide#Aminopropionamides aminopropionamides] and (to a lesser rextend[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315399])dicarbonyls such as glyoxal and methylglyoxal.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20131787]

Higher levels of reducing sugars results in higher levels of acrylamide[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22953952], with free asparagine being the limiting factor[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438317], but often levels of free asparagine correlate with free glucose and fructose levels.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18624440] Except for lysine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16209557], cysteine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16018588] and glycine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15826086], the presence of other additional amino acids may increase acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19739658], or not.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438308](due to competitive [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) HCA] formation)

Acrylamide can also be formed at physiological conditions (37°C, pH 7.4) when asparagine is incubated in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), depending on incubation time and H2O2 concentration (oxidative stress, counteracted by glutathione), which allows for endogenous acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19772296], which is actually the case in mice (oxidative stress-induced)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18624427] Naringenin (in grapefruits, oranges[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23132664] and tomato skin[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20349923]), strongly inhibits acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19639978] and P450 enzymes[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22935222][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21953762] that activate/detoxify [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) HCAs] and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

==Acrylamide activation==
Genotoxicity of acrylamide depends on its activation into glycidamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15667831] Most of the acrylamide ingested with food is absorbed in humans. Glutathione prevents most of the acrylamide being converted into the reactive metabolite glycidamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16492914] Acrylamide is efficiently activated to glycidamide[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16239164] by P450 enzymes. P450 2E1 inhibitors, such as diallyl sulfide in garlic, inhibit acrylamide to glycidamide conversion.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16337756] Common human viral infections may influence this metabolism.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15863249] Activation of acrylamide into glycidamide turns out to be significantly more effective in non-smokers than in the higher exposed smokers.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15729833] Transport of acrylamide in the intestine is mediated primarily by passive processes. Depletion of cellular glutathione levels may be one potential mechanism for acrylamide (geno)toxicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17267090] To what extend acrylamide may cause DNA damage is not so much related to the activity of P450 enzymes, but more so to the extend of depletion of glutathione, which increases both genotoxicity and cytotoxicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15668109]

==N-methylacrylamide==
Alternatively, in the formation of acrylamide, '''A)''' may be acrylic acid, produced from beta-alanine, aspartic acid and carnosine (directly) or from cysteine and serine (indirectly; through pyruvic acid), reacting with '''B)''' ammonia. When in '''B)''' ammonia is replaced by methylamine (creatine is a good source of methylamine), in reaction with acrylic acid this may yield N-methylacrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438299] The nitrogen and the methyl groups of methylamine may also both originate from creatinine, which may produce N-methylacrylamide through the acrylic acid pathway during cooking.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315400] N-methylacrylamide is activated by hepatic glutathione S-transferases [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7295032], produces testicular atrophy[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7271446] is neurotoxic[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3004383][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6661030] and increases susceptibility to acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/164879] Similar to acrylamide, un-activated N-methylacrylamide by itself is not mutagenic.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3908926]

==Acrylamide in food==
Cooked foods may contain various heat-induced carcinogens and toxins, such as [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) HCAs], oxysterols, [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Nitrate#Nitrosamines nitroso compounds], furan, chloropropanols and acrylamide-related substances. Particularly deep-frying has great consequences, evoking various complex reactions such as oxidation, hydrolysis, isomerization, and polymerization.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22800882] Microwaving creates more acrylamide than roasting[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21853292], frying and boiling.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17995763] Frying in sunflower oil creates more acrylamide than frying in corn oil.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680952] Phenols in olive oil are not degraded during frying and inhibit acrylamide formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18290617] Frying oil by itself is not a source of acrylamide[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17898470]; its about the heat conducted to the food.
Not antioxidants in general[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14611163], but pyridoxamine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19143489] (part of the vitamin B6 family) and some antioxidants (vitamin C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20667655], vitamin E)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23057639] decrease the level of acrylamide produced during food processing. Adding antioxidants to foods may increase the formation of acrylamide upon long-term heating if free sugar concentration is low and asparagine concentration is relatively high.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22143430] Phytic acid inhibits acrylamide formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438310]

* '''Potatoes''' may contain varying levels of reducing sugars, varying per season[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22928369], as storing below 10°C increases breakdown of starch to sucrose, ultimately cleaved by acid invertase to produce glucose and fructose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22734927]. The mean level of acrylamide content in all (pre-fried) frozen potato products before preparation was found to be 322 μg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21853292] In an Iranian study, levels of acrylamide in potato products varied between 244 and 1688 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20600544] Baking at 170°C more than doubled the acrylamide amount that formed upon frying at the same temperature, whereas at 180°C and 190°C, the acrylamide levels of chips prepared by baking were lower than their fried counterparts.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20492162] Elevated phenol levels in potatoes inhibit acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20629114], and potato fiber protect the small intestines against the negative impact of acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22414587]
* '''Potato crisps / chips'''; In a Polish study, potato crisps contained 770 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21365857] A French study found on average 954 mcg acrylamide/kg in potato chips/crisps.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22240413] A Chinese study found on average 1548 mcg/kg in potato chips.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22080811] In an Egyptian study potato chips contained 1500 mcg/kg and fried potatoes 540 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18410716] In an Austrian study potato crisps contained up to 1500 mcg/kg (median: 499 mcg/kg).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560932] A Swiss study found 7000 mcg/kg in one particular brand of potato chips.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20730646] In a Canadian study the acrylamide concentration in potato chips varied from 106 to 4630 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20582779] In a Spanish study acrylamide in potato crisps varied from 81 to 2622 mcg/kg (average 740 mcg/kg).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680901] and in Polish studies from 376 to 2348 mcg/kg[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18807914] and 352 to 3647 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17711133] The highest result was 12000 mcg/kg in overcooked oil-fried chips.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12623671]
* '''French fries''' fried at 150°C to 190°C for up to 10 min had acrylamide levels of 55 to 2130 mcg/kg, with the highest levels in the most processed (highest frying times/temperatures) and the most highly browned fries.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438318] A Chinese study found 604 mcg/kg in fried potato.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23202837] A Polish study found the lowest levels in French fries collected from bars and restaurants; 401 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21365857] From another Chines study: "French fries were found to contain 278-4518 mcg/kg. It means that the content of acrylamide in French fries is 10,000 times higher than the drinking water guideline of World Health Organization for acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16124585]
* '''Wheat flour''' may contain 1700 to 3100 mcg acrylamide /kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17455956] Gluten may contain up to 3997 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16317786]
* '''Cookies'''' acrylamide concentrations correspond with baking temperature and surface color. Steam-assisted baking results in lower levels.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22950636] low-temperature long-time pre-treatment may reduce acrylamide yield with up to 42%.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19785002] Cookies baked at 150°C for 25 minutes yielded 75 mcg acrylamide /kg, compared to 236 mcg/kg in cookies baked at 240°C for 9 minutes.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22784192] Cookies baked in an oven at 205°C for 11 min yielded 107 mcg acrylamide /kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22490203] A Chinese study found on average 388 mcg acrylamide /kg in biscuits.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22080811] The median level found in Austrian cookies was 99 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560932]
* '''Crispbread / crackers''' may contain 845 mcg/kg[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20730646], 942 mcg/kg [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22080811], or 1480 mcg acrylamide / kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17230586] The median in an Austrian study was 69 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560932]
* '''Bread'''; By increasing baking time and temperature, acrylamide content increased from 10 to 30 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16028985] In the crust, acrylamide levels usually are over 100 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438316], and levels may increase 190-fold with increased temperature and baking time; the darker the crust, the more acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15053550] In general, wheat bread (up to 5 mcg/kg) and rye bread (7 to 23 mcg/kg) contain relatively little acrylamide when untoasted, but toasted wheat (11 to 161 mcg/kg) and rye bread slices (27 to 205 mcg/kg) contain much more[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18608496]; in hard-toasted bread, all asparagine had reacted.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18608496] More acrylamide was formed in "dark" toasted bread slices (43 to 611 mcg/kg), than "light" (8 to 218 mcg/kg) or "medium" (11 to 214 mcg/kg) toasted slices.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438318] If nitrogen fertilization is applied to the wheat, the bread products may contain 55.6 mcg/kg instead of 10.6 mcg acrylamide /kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17090149] In an Egyptian study bread contributed to 17% of the mean daily dietary acrylamide intake.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18410716]
* '''Cereals''' may contain from 50 to 347 mcg/kg[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20582779], or 62 to 803 mcg/kg, 292 mcg/kg on average[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16865750], up to 1080 mcg acrylamide /kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20730646].
* '''Corn products''' were found to contain between 30 and 410 mcg acrylamide /kg [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20600544]. The median level found in popcorn was 97 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560932] Microwaved popcorn contains less acrylamide than traditionally produced popcorn.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17555107]
* '''Soybean'''-containing commercial bakery products contain higher levels of acrylamide than similar bakery products without soy.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22998601]
* '''Coffee''' may contain 29 mcg/kg in coffee drink[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17230586] 708 mcg/kg in Robusta coffee, 374 mcg/kg in Arabica coffee[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18624446] and 2528 mcg acrylamide /kg in instant coffee.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17364924] The median levels found in coffee was 169 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560932] In another study, acrylamide levels ranged from 45 to 374 mcg/kg in unbrewed coffee grounds, from 172 to 539 mcg/kg in instant coffee crystals, and from 6 to 16 mcg/kg in brewed coffee.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15053542] For coffee and cacao powder, a significant decrease occurred during storage for 3 or 6 months, respectively. Acrylamide concentrations dropped from 305 to 210 microg/kg in coffee and from 265 to 180 mcg/kg in cacao powder.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15759751]
* '''Chocolate'''; The acrylamide levels in chocolate varied between 23 and 537 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16517524]
* In '''prawn strips''', on average 341 mcg/kg and in rice crusts 201 mcg/kg acrylamide was found. Heated protein-rich food also showed some acrylamide content, ranging from 2 to 78 µg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23202837] In 28 commercial precooked breaded chicken samples analyzed, acrylamide concentrations ranged between 910 and 970 mcg/kg, which may almost double during storage.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17340884]
* '''Thai curry'''; Acrylamide is also formed in Thai curry cooked in coconut milk, with coconut milk being the source.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18029078] Antioxidants from bamboo leaves inhibit acrylamide formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17364925]
* '''Almonds''' roasted at 138°C for 22 min had acrylamide levels ranging from 117 to 221 μg/kg, with an average of 187 μg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21721575] Low levels in roasted almonds (8 to 86 mcg/kg) significantly increased with increased roasting temperature and time.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20510332] Nuts with a lower initial moisture content will contain more acrylamide after roasting.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17995869] Roasted hazelnuts contained very little acrylamide because of the low content of free asparagine in the raw nut.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16190636]
* '''Prune juice''' contains 186 to 916 µg/kg acrylamide. Strained prunes in babyfood may contain 75 to 265 µg/kg, baby apple/prune juice 33 to 61 µg/kg, and prunes 58 to 332 µg/kg. Prunes are produced industrially by dehydration of plums at temperatures of 85–90°C for 18 h. Prune juice is produced by boiling the prunes in water, and may include pasteurisation. Strained/pureed prunes in babyfoods contain up to 265 mcg/kg acrylamide, and apple-prune juice up 61 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21623495]
* '''Infant powdered milk and baby foods in jars''' contained 3.01 to 9.06 mcg acrylamide /kg and 6.80 to 124.93 mcg/kg respectively.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16297393] Ready to eat baby foods; gruel (1.4 mcg/kg), porridge (26 mcg/kg) and canned baby food (7.8 mcg/kg) all contained acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15811575]
* '''Sulfurized apricot''' (and other dried fruits[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18585295]) also contains acrylamide. During storage, acrylamide content may decrease by 53%.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15759751]
* '''Black olives''' (cured, commercial) contain acrylamide as well.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18303816]
* '''Drinking water''' may contain very little acrylamide; < 0.03 mcg/L.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12964603]

==Acrylamide food additives==
* AF-2 or furylfuramide; 2-(2-furyl)-3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)-acrylamide (widely used in Japan[http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/34/9/2266]), was first demonstrated to be mutagenic in Escherichia coli WP-2 and then proved to be carcinogenic in experimental animals [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7341982][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/806802][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/141801] 5-nitro-2-furyl is a radical.
* 5-NFAA; 3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)acrylic acid proved to be more mutagenic than AF-2.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6819485]

==Acrylamide exposure==
Acrylamide from food given to humans is in fact absorbed from the gut. The half-live of acrylamide in the human body may vary between 2 and 7 hours.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12673101] Dietary protein inhibits the uptake of acrylamide, as acrylamide binds to protein, which hinders its uptake (by Caco-2 cells).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15186132] Dietary fiber and chlorophyllin are not protective against acrylamide toxicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17391825] Eugenol in nutmeg, cinnamon and basil restores the acrylamide-induced reduction in glutathione (similar to selenium[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21870766]) and dopamine levels, and reduces oxidative stress in the brain.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23161090]

* Though Guideline-base diets contain less acrylamide contributed by French fries and potato chips, overall acrylamide intake is yet relatively high due to more frequent breakfast cereal intake.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22107988]
* In a Californian study, non-cancer benchmarks for acrylamide were exceeded by >95% of preschool-age children, most of the acrylamide coming from chips, cereal, crackers, and other processed carbohydrate foods.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23140444]
* In Australia, mean daily acrylamide intake for Australians aged 2 years and above, was estimated as 0.4 to 0.5 mcg/kg bodyweight. 1.0 to 1.3 mcg/kg bw for young children (2-6 years).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15370822]
* In Sweden, an average daily intake of 35 mcg corresponds to daily 0.5 mcg/kg body weight (body weight 70 kg).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12963011]
* In Germany, the highest proportions of total intake of acrylamide came from the intake of commercial baby food (86-91%) in infants, and bread (18-46%), pastries (16-35%), and potato products (7-35%) in children and adolescents.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15575562]
* In the U.K. daily mean adult exposure was estimated as 0.61 mcg/kg bw (high level as 1.29 mcg/kg). The daily mean adult Irish consumer exposure was estimated as 0.59 mcg/kg bw (high level as 1.75 mcg/kg).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18624442]
* In Poland, the daily exposure of infants aged 6-12 months of life was estimated at minimally 0.41 to 0.62 μg/kg bodyweight (bw), averagely at 2.10 to 4.32 μg/kg bw. Worst case scenario at 7.47 to 12.35 μg/kg bw; several dozen times higher than for the average total population.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22617352] In another study, acrylamide intake in the children aged 7-13 was 1.78 mcg/kg and in (14 to 18 yrs) adolescents 1.17 mcg/kg bw.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17711114] In the total population, the estimated daily mean acrylamide exposure is 0.43 mcg/kg bw. The main sources of dietary acrylamide in Poland is bread (45%), French fries and potato crisps (23%) and roasted coffee (19%).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20470853]
* In a French study mean daily acrylamide exposure was assessed to be 0.43 μg/kg of body weight for adults and 0.69 μg/kg for children.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22240413]
* In Finland, the most important source of acrylamide exposure was coffee, followed by casseroles rich in starch, then rye bread. Among children, the most important sources were casseroles rich in starch and then biscuits and, finally, chips and other fried potatoes. Daily acrylamide exposure per kg bodyweight was highest among the 3-year-old children (1.01 µg/kg) and lowest among 65-74-year-old women (0.31 µg/kg).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21762033]
* In Norway the estimated median dietary intake of acrylamide 13.5 microg/day in nonsmokers and 18.3 microg/day in smokers.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17449897] The dietary exposure of 119 pregnant women to acrylamide was estimated at 0.3 mcg/kg bodyweight.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18599176]
* In The Netherlands, the mean acrylamide exposure was 0.48 mcg/kg bw. Risk of neurotoxicity is negligible. The additional cancer risk might not be negligible. For 344 food products, acrylamide amounts ranged from <30 to 3100 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12963010]
* In Belgium, the daily average acrylamide exposure was calculated to be 0.4 mcg/kg bodyweight, and the main contributors being chips (23%), coffee (19%), biscuits (13%), and bread (12%).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20589545] In another study biscuits (35.4%), French fries (29.9%), bread (23.5%), and chocolate (11.2%) were identified to be the main sources of dietary acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17440997] The estimated mean dietary intake of acrylamide in Flemish adolescents was 0.51 mcg/kg bw.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15621340]
* In Egypt the highest mean daily dietary intake of acrylamide (3.82 mcg/kg body weight) was for the age group from 3 to 6 years old, while the lowest acrylamide intake (0.49 mcg/kg) was that of the age group above 50 years old.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18410716]
* In Taiwan, comparing 294 snack foods, the highest levels of acrylamide were found in root- and tuber-based snack foods (average 435 μg/kg), followed by cereal-based snack foods (average 299 μg/kg). Rice flour-based, seafood-based, and dried fruit snack foods had the lowest acrylamide content (average <50 μg/kg).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23212012]
* In China, the estimated mean acrylamide intake is 0.28 mcg/kg bodyweight.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17086721]

==Health effects==
* '''Neurotoxicity'''; Acrylamide induces hepatic ornithine decarboxylase (ODC)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3956794] and affects behaviour by influencing hepatic mechanisms or central dopaminergic function.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7201569] Decreased dopamine levels may be due to acrylamide induced (radical) peroxynitrite formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19442880] The nerve terminal is a primary site of acrylamide action, which impairs neurotransmitter release and promotes degeneration by inhibiting membrane-fusion processes (by adducting nucleophilic sulfhydryl groups on proteins critically involved in membrane fusion).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15183015] In rats, 5000 mcg acrylamide/kg induces cognitive and motivational alterations.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17720246] Neurotoxicity due to acrylamide is a documented effect in human epidemiological studies[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14705871], but not likely to occur in the general population except very high consumers.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19230763][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17905504]
* '''Health in general'''; Acrylamide and its metabolite glycidamide bind with proteins to form protein adducts in metabolic processes.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21167989] Acrylamide increases expression of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cycloogenase-2 (Cox-2) and NOS activity in breast epithelial cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20713430] These are known to be early molecular changes in disease formation. In humans, chronic ingestion of acrylamide (and [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Trans-fatty_acids trans-fatty acids]) induces a proinflammatory state (increasing homocysteine and plasma C-reactive protein[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15058816]), a risk factor for atherosclerosis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19158207]
* '''Pregnancy'''; The placenta gives negligible protection of the fetus to exposure from acrylamide[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21882862]. The concentration of acrylamide adducts in the blood of human neonates is approximately 50% of the adduct level found in the blood of the mother.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14740221] In humans, maternal dietary exposure to acrylamide is associated with reduced birth weight and head circumference.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23092936][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23204292] In pregnant mice, both acrylamide and fried potato chips increased the rate of abortion and neonatal mortality and decreased the total number, body weight, size, and crown-rump length of the offspring before and after birth. Fried potato chips induced higher rates of congenital malformations than acrylamide alone.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21329872] In rat pups, acrylamide administration induced neurotoxic symptoms.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22197712] The lactational transfer of acrylamide to rat offspring is limted though (<10%).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19305978] In human breast milk samples (except one) the acrylamide level was below 0.5 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15811575]
* '''Intestines'''; In mice, acrylamide altered the morphology and histology of the small intestinal wall, decreasing proliferation, myenteron and submucosal thicknesses, villus length, fractal dimension, crypt depth, crypt number, and the small intestinal absorptive surface. Conversely, apoptosis, hemoglobin adduct levels, intensity of epithelium staining, enterocyte number, villus epithelial thickness, and crypt width and parameters associated with nerve ganglia were increased. These effects were inhibited by potato fiber.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22414587]
* '''Reproductive toxicity'''; In rats, acrylamide exposure of 2500 μg/kg bodyweight caused significant changes in serum hormones, histopathology, testicular gene expression and cell proliferation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22459607], but no thyroid, hypothalamus or pituitary changes (hormones, mRNA levels)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18430446] In weaning male rats, acrylamide has a toxicological effect on the reproductive system.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21415092] In mice, increased fat intake potentiates acrylamide-induced oxidative stress in the epididymis and epididymal sperm and a subsequent effect on spermatogenesis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20158387] Acrylamide may also affect the Leydig cells (androgen release).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18390183] In humans, reproductive toxicity due to acrylamide is not likely to occur in the general population except very high consumers.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19230763]
* '''Cancer'''; Acrylamide is clearly carcinogenic in studies in animals, in which it causes increased tumour incidence at a variety of sites.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17033134] Acrylamide targets endocrine sensitive tissues, increasing DNA damage in thyroid, testicular mesothelium and adrenal medulla.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438288] Acrylamide (and/or its metabolites) are genotoxic in human lymphocytes.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15501435] In mice, 0.14 mmol glycidamide / kg bodyweight induces DNA adduct formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19123476] and DNA adducts in lymphoma cells in a linear dose-dependent manner. Glycidamide (acrylamide metabolite) is mutagenic starting at a 2mM dose.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18029077] In rats, at a dose of 1 μg/kg bodyweight, adducts (DNA adducts, primarily at N7 of guanine) were found in kidney and lung, but not in liver. At 10 μg/kg bw, adducts were found in all three organs, at levels close to those found at 1 μg acrylamide/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22211389] Carcinogenicity and mutagenicity are possible hazardous health effects for the general population[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19230763], but only with relatively high intakes.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17905504][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17822822] After lifelong daily exposure to 1 mcg acrylamide per kg body weight, 6 out of 10,000 individuals may develop cancer due to acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12805639] Human epidemiological studies show a lack of relationship between acrylamide intake and various types of cancer.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22495255][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22136129]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15668103] Glycidamide is only moderately genotoxic.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15668108] Given the consistent relationship between dietary carcinogenic [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines (HCAs)] and various types of cancer, and that dietary acrylamide mainly comes from processed plant (starchy) foods, and that dietary carcinogenic HCAs mainly come from processed animal foods, a high plant food intake (vs high animal food intake) is indeed unlikely to increase exposure to dietary carcinogens (acrylamide intake will be at the expense of HCA intake).

==Aminopropionamides==
Aminopropionamides are biogenic amines of asparagine. Aminopropionamide (APA), 3-aminopropionamide (3-APA) and 3-(alkylamino)propionamides (benzyl, phenylethyl, butyl, and octyl) may all be precursors of acrylamide[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19746374] through diverse pathways.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19746374] 3-Hydroxypropanamide is (in reaction with asparagine) the least potent precursor of acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315399] 3-APA may form at >130°C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16828874] 3-APA has a >12-fold higher efficacy in acrylamide generation than asparagine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16881697] In the absence of carbohydrates, 63 mol% of 3-APA was converted into acrylamide (at 170°C).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15264910] 3-APA inhibits the enzyme diamine oxidase[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/186027] and may be formed through different pathways:

* '''1)''' from asparagine reacting with glucose or 2-oxopropionic acid [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438300](or other reducing sugars),
* '''2)''' by decarboxylation of asparagine by lipid oxidation products (particularly alkadienals and analogous ketodienes, hydroperoxides and alkenals)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20828127] or
* '''3)''' by enzymatic decarboxylation of asparagine; 3-APA is formed during storage of intact potatoes (20° or 35°C) or after crushing of the cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15264910].
3-APA is present in Gouda cheese; increasing to 1300 mcg/kg after thermal processing.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16828874] Wheat flour containing high levels of asparagine will yield high levels of both acrylamide and 3-APA.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17455956] Wheat flour may contain 40 to 76 mg of 3-APA / kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17455956] Pyridoxamine (part of the vitamin B6 family) induces 3-APA formation at the expense of acrylamide formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19143489]

==Author==
Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966
Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)

Heterocyclic Amines (HCA)

2023-03-15T13:59:37Z

RRM: /* Author */

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) contain at least one heterocyclic ring (with atoms of at least 2 different elements) and one amine group, attached to the heterocyclic ring. Major groups of HCAs are Carbolines (indoles), Pyrrolidines, Pyrroles (in Hb and vitamin B12), Pyridines (vitamin B3 and B6) and Pyrimidines (vitamin B1), including Purines (adenine, guanine).

Many HCA are harmless, or even beneficial (eg vitamins), whereas others, created by cooking, may cause cancer or influence brain functioning.

==Mutagenic HCA in cigarette smoke==
Besides carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (eg Benzo(alpha)Pyrene), [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Acrylamide acrylamide] and [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Nitrate#Nitrosamines nitrosamines] (eg N-Nitrosodimethylamine), the following HCA are a few of the HCA found (besides in diesel exhaust [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17174486]) in cigarette smoke:
* Trp-P-1 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8844794]
* Trp-P-2 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8844794]
* Glu-P-1 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7586163]
* Glu-P-2 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1971772]
* A alpha C [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8844794]
* MeA alpha C [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8844794]
* PhIP [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8518034]

But exactly the same compounds are also found in cooked foods, as [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Maillard_reaction Maillard reaction] products:
* Trp-P-1 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1600606][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8330368]
* Trp-P-2 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1907222][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2524682]
* Glu-P-1 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20954084]
* Glu-P-2 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15035999]
* A alpha C [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15704238]
* MeA alpha C [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9604333]
* PhIP [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12067584]

==Carcinogenic HCA in cooked foods==
HCAs form when amino acids (particularly serine, tryptophan and glutamic acid[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/389565]) are heated, particularly in the presence of creatinine (in meat and fish). Additional amino acids (particularly threonine) may increase total mutagenicity many times.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2591018] HCA concentration is associated with meat doneness [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17497412] and cooking temperature [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20954084][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10606149]. The darker the surface colour of the meat, the higher the HCA concentrations [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22910802]. Grilling yields over 10-fold more HCAs than cooking. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8242861] Various enzymes in the human liver (and tongue [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20308224], pancreas[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7527903], mammary gland (antimicrobial)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15606142] and prostate[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11741741]) that are meant to detoxify specific HCAs actually activate others [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20192249][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3147272]:
* HCAs are (phase 1) oxidized to hydroxylamino derivatives by cytochrome P450s (as humans age, the activity of P450s decreases[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2510945]), and (phase 2) further converted to ester forms (with acetic acid, sulfuric acid, proline) by acetyltransferase and sulfotransferase. Eventually, they produce DNA adducts through the formation of N-C bonds at guanine bases [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15072585], which actually exist in human tissues, and may be involved in human cancer development [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8640908]
* Instead, hydroxylamines (from phase 1, except for PhIP- and Trp-P-2 hydroxylates) may also get O-acetylated (phase 2) by arylamine N-acetyltransferase (NAT2).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7697826]
* Alternatively, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) are also designed to detoxify HCAs, but may also activate them by glucuronidation of HCAs (eg AalphaC > AalphaC-N(2)-Gl)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22393056]
* and in extrahepatic tissues ("other than the liver"), prostaglandin H synthase catalyzes one-electron oxidation, rendering free-radical metabolites.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12489111]

Adding PhIP to the diet at a concentration of 100 ppm (parts per million, or ng/g) for 2 years induced carcinomas in 47% of female rats.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8039140] There is a linear relation between DNA adducts in the liver and doses of MeIQx fed to rats [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2116395]. These 10 HCA have been shown to be carcinogenic in rats and/or mice when administered in the diet (for 1 to 2 years) at concentrations of 100-800 ng / gram (ppm) : IQ, MeIQ, MeIQx, PhIP, Trp-P-!, Trp-P-2, Glu-P-1, Glu-P-2, AalphaC and MeAalphaC.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1567009/pdf/envhper00412-0123.pdf] Daily HCA intake in humans extends beyond 2 years, and " ''the rat model that is used for carcinogenesis bioassays, significantly underestimates the potential hepatic genotoxicity of HCAs in humans'' ".[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21456541] These amounts were found in cooked foods:

* IQ; up to 87 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8885325]
* MeIQ; up to 0.03 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1567009/pdf/envhper00412-0123.pdf]
* MeIQx; up to 45 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10910203]
* PhIP; up to 258 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680902]
* Trp-P-1; up to 13 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6991096]
* Trp-P-2; up t0 13 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6991096]
* AalphaC; up to 650.8 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7272995]
* MeAalphaC; up to 63.5 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7272995]
* Glu-P-1; up to 3.2 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19265446]
* Glu-P-2; up to 1068 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8885325]

Human tissues have been shown to be vulnerable to these HCAs [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15036007][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17079477][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16908439][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17416774]. Even very low doses of HCAs may cause cancer [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1544146], because the carcinogenic effects of HCAs are additive / synergistic, particularly at low doses [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9119321][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9045941][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8200065][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2029739][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8844816]. Epidemiological studies show associations between HCA intake and breast cancer, colon cancer[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19261727], pancreatic cancer[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22162237] and prostate cancer [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2769029/]. Diet and nutrition may be responsible for 60% of the total cancer incidence for women and greater than 40% for men.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3902465]

* In a Polish study total daily exposure to IQ, MeIQ, MeIQx, DiMeIQx and PhIP was estimated at 200 to 7700 ng per person.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15036001]
* In a Malaysian study the average daily intake level of HCAs was 554 ng per person (lower than those reported from other regions).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20589547]
* in a Swiss study the average daily exposure to HCAs was estimated at 5 ng/kg body mass. (about 400 ng per person)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11407752]
* In a Spanish study the average total daily intake of mutagenic HCAs through meat dishes was estimated at 286 ng per person. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18925613]
* Another Spanish study estimated total daily intake of mutagenic HCAs at 606 ng per person.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15035999]
* In a German study the assessed average daily dietary intake of total HCA was 103 ng per person.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12372165] (69 ng from meat alone[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18309547])
* In a Japanese study average daily HCA intake levels were estimated at 1.08 ng/kg bodyweight. (about 58 ng per person)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12351163]
* In a Chinese study estimated daily exposure to HCAs was 50 ng per person, but 50% higher among 20-39 yr olds.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16201846]

Substitutions on the structural rings of HCAs may block detoxication reactions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1991458]. The capacity of detoxification mechanisms may account for several hundred-fold difference in mutagenicity of HCAs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3948315]
* Antioxidants (present in the food when cooked) inhibit HCA formation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9675297], particularly phenols (as in olive oil, tea) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15036011] vitamin E [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12467141] and vitamin C [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22405910].
* Dietary fat increases activity of the enzymes that activate and/or detoxify HCAs [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2111458]. Fatty acids (and fiber[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3014197]) may also bind and inactivate HCAs[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3757943]), but unsaturated fatty acids in cooking oil may also prevent the degradation of HCAs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17619072] Cooking in fresh (more so than old) virgin olive oil inhibits HCA formation by between 30 and 50%.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11513697], though (similar to the addition of iron[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8282281]) may double the yield of MeIQx.
* Adding sugar may either enhance or inhibit mutagenicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8844791]
* Particularly juice from sweet cherries, and (to a lesser extend) from kiwi, plum and blueberry inhibits genotoxicity of IQ, more so than the juices from watermelon, blackberry, strawberry, black currant and Red delicious apple. OJ was inactive. Vegetables incl. broccoli moderately inhibited IQ genotoxicity[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20713174], even though sulforaphane (in broccoli) inhibits mutagenicity of some HCAs (incl IQ, but not Glu-P-1, Glu-P-2).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15267150] OJ, however, contains naringenin (also in grapefruits and tomatoes), which inhibits P450 enzymes (that activate/detoxify HCAs).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22935222][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21953762]
* Besides containing various other toxic or mutagenic compounds[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20667459], specific phenols in turmeric (a ginger; Indian saffron; ''Curcuma longa''); curcumin (C), demethoxycurcumin (dmC; both > 80%) and bisdemethoxycurcumin (bdmC; 40% - 80%) strongly inhibit mutagenicity of all HCAs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12974398]
* Lemon grass inhibits mutagenicity of HCAs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7523944]
* Bacteria from a healthy intestinal microflora may (irreversibly) bind HCAs (50% of PhIP, almost 100% Trp-P-2) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7526189]

==HCA inhibitors==
Retinol, retinal, riboflavin, riboflavin 5'-phosphate, FAD, vitamins K1, K3, K4, 1,4-naphthoquinone, and coenzyme Q10 caused a concentration-dependent decrease in the mutagenicity of all six mutagens (IQ, MeIQ, MeIQx, PhIP, Glu-P-1 and Trp-P-2).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10477359]

==Mutagenic HCA in cooked foods==
The IQ-type HCAs are derived from amino acids and from creatinine in raw meat and fish, or sugars [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8222049] additionally. IQ-type HCAs are readily formed from dideoxyosones[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16406213].
Non-IQ-type HCAs are obtained by heating tryptophan (indoles / gamma-carbolines) or glutamic acid (imidazoles). The actual number of mutagenic HCAs is multiple-fold higher, as for each HCA listed, there may be a serie of mutagenic isomeres. (eg 12 TMIP isomeres[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16258923])

* 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ) in broiled sardines, cooked beef, fried fish[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6733854], up to levels of 1.9 ng/g in "medium" barbequed sardines.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19265446] IQ is activated to N-hydroxy-2-amino-3-methyl-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (N-OH-IQ). Its mutagenicity is distinctly reduced by riboflavin 5'-phosphate (vitamin B2 analog). Vitamin A, K3 and K4 also inhibit IQ induced mutagenesis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10477359]
* 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (IQx) in broiled sardines[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3276407], grilled beef[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15310244], may be metabolized in various (>15), more or less mutagenic derivatives.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7678155]
* 2-amino-1-methylimidazo[4,5-b]quinoline (IQ[4,5-b]) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15826085] in grilled beef. Also present in urine of vegetarians; may be formed endogenously from creatinine and 2-aminobenzaldehyde.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15777097]
* 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (MeIQ) in fried fish [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3769138][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8039140][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3419446], cooked meat [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15036002].
* 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx or 8-MeIQx) in various cooked foods[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3335050][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15310244], up to 45.5 ng/g [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10910203], up to 21.2 ng/g in commercial beef flavors[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7506378], activated to IQx-8-COOH, HONH-MeIQx, 7-oxo-MeIQx and various other metabolites.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12351158]
* 2-amino-3,4,7,8-tetramethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (TriMeIQx); 80 ng/g in griddled bacon [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680902]
* 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4,8-DiMeIQx) in fried fish [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3419446], beef extract [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3840061], poultry products[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22128739].
* 2-amino-3,7,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (7,8-DiMeIQx; in roasted eel) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1894217] (creatinine + glycine + glucose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6379441])
* 2-amino-1,7,9-trimethylimidazo[4,5-g]quinoxaline (7,9-DiMeIgQx) 53 ng/g in beef extract. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8020148]
* 2-amino-4-hydroxymethyl-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4-CH2OH-8-MeIQx; in beef extract) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8293543]
* 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) in cooked meat and fish[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9000552][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1860171], 6 to 54 ng/g in roasted pork[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20954084], 258 ng/g in griddled pork loin[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680902], 13.3 ng/g in barbequed salmon[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19265446].
* 2-amino-(1,6-dimethylfuro[3,2-e]imidazo[4,5-b])pyridine (IFP) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2265477] in fried chicken breast[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17032054]
* 2-amino-1-methyl-6-(4-hydroxyphenyl)imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (4'-OH-PhIP); 21.0 ng/g in broiled beef [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8844794] (creatine + tyrosine + glucose)
* 2-amino-n,n-dimethylimidazopyridine (DMIP) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3276407] in fried chicken [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19523888]
* 2-amino-n,n,n-trimethylimidazopyridine (TMIP) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3276407] in fried chicken breast[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17032054] and fried ground beef[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3757953]. All 11 heated-muscle-meat TMIP isomeres tested also proved mutagenic.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16258923]
* 2-Amino-5-phenylpyridine (2-APP or Phe-P-1)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3390806] (its ultimate acetoxy reactive species) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2791211]

* 3-amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-1) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/160914] in broiled beef[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7227728], broiled fish (13.3 ng of Trp-P-1 / g. broiled sardines)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6991096] and griddled beef steak (0.35 ng/g)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17141386].
* 3-amino-1-methyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-2) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/160914] in cooked beef and fish[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6343852](13.1 ng of Trp-P-2 / g. broiled sardines.)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6991096]; also inhibits L-Dopa synthesis (similar to other alpha- and gamma-carbolines, and PhIP) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2243617]
* 2-amino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (A alpha C) in soybean globulin and cooked meat [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6539177] 0.2 to 1.4 ng/g in griddled beef steak [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17141386], 17.7 ng/g in well done barbequed sardines[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19265446], 650.8 ng/g in grilled beef[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7272995], activated to 2-hydroxyamino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (HONH-AalphaC) and subsequently penultimate ester species, which bind to DNA[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19243127].
* 2-amino-3-methyl-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (MeA alpha C); soybean globulin, cooked meat, fried fish [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15035999][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/361041][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11041143], up to 10.6 ng/g in "well done" barbequed sardines[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19265446], 63.5 ng/g in grilled beef[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7272995]. About 17% is activated to mutagenic N2-hydroxy-MeA alpha C [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9568592].

* 2-amino-6-methyldipyrido[1,2-a:3',2'-d]imidazole (Glu-P-1; a delta-carboline) in roasted mackerel and pork[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20954084], 3.18 ng/g in barbequed salmon[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19265446], and activated to N-hydroxylated Glu-P-1, and its mutagenicity is further stimulated by zinc-superoxide dismutase (CuZn-SOD), without changing its structure.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18455469]. Activated Glu-P-1 produces a large amount of superoxide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9805379] HCAs are eventually metabolized into less mutagenic compounds, such as N-acetyl-Glu-P-1 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3757943]
* 2-aminodipyrido[1,2-a:3',2'-d]imidazole (Glu-P-2; a delta-carboline) in cooked salmon [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1583097] and Worcestershire sauce [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2895704], 286 to 1068 ng/g in grilled fish patty[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8885325]

* methyl-2-methylamino-IH,6H-pyrrolo[3,4-f]benzimidazole-5,7-dione (Cre-P-1) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2054883]
* 2,6-diamino-3,4-dimethyl-7-oxo-pyrano[4,3-g]benzimidazole from the natural meat components creatine, glutamic acid and glucose. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1678491]

==Neuro-active HCAs; natural ones and in cooked foods==
In the human body (and human milk [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2019874]), various endogenous beta-carbolines (eg tetrahydro-beta-carboline (tryptoline), 6-methoxytetrahydro-beta-carboline, tetrahydro-harman, harman, harmalan [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3412494][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2580722]) act on the Benzodiazepine receptors as neurotransmitters (regulating behavioral habituation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2538132], appetite [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2824004] and modulating acetylcholine release [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7603619][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8298971]), and are monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7130973]. beta-Carbolines may be anti-mutagenics, anti-genotoxic [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17545209] and often associated with (acetyl)cholinesterase inhibition [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22717507][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6864229]

Various foods, such as fish, meat and fruits naturally also contain beta-carbolines, and cooking may dramatically increase their level and form different ones, that may be moderately naturally present in other foods. When heating tryptophan, various beta-carbolines (indoles) are formed [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9202762]), such as harman and norharman. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10503893] Studies show long-term retention of these specific neurotoxic beta-carbolines in brain neuromelanin [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14767717].
Nitrosation (in the presence of nitrite) of beta-carbolines generally produces mutagenics [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3550849], but also reaction with aniline may produce mutagenics [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12970073][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12387627]. Unlike 'normal' beta-carbolines (such as harman and norharman), tetrahydro-beta-carbolines are generally anti-oxidants. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12420751] Reaction of tryptophan with aldehydes (benzaldehyde, vanillin, syringaldehyde, salicylaldehyde, anisaldehyde; particularly in fermented foods[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2016385]) may already result in beta-carbolines at 70°C [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12670151], and with the addition of glucose, copper and iron ('fortified foods'), beta-carbolines may already form at 40°C. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10721120]

'''beta-Carbolines in cooked foods'''

Cooking may induce complex beta-carbolines. All simple beta-carbolines foods have been tested for, were actually present in cooked foods, and yet, many simple beta-carbolines have not been tested for occurence in cooked foods. The following (simple and complex) beta-carbolines ''have'' been identified.

* Norharman(e) (9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole = β-carboline) in cigarette smoke, cooked meat [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680902][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20593391][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19610359], cooked fish, toasted bread [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15764332] and coffee [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17291006] is a neurotoxin [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17256107] has synergistic effects with Trp-P-2[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6828050] and (N-hydroxylated) Glu-P-1[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14568301] and may contribute to idiopathic Parkinson's disease [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16075188]). Endogenous norharman formation is about 50-100 ng per kg bodyweight, whereas total daily dietary exposure is estimated at max 4000 ng / kg. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15036003] Griddled bacon contains up to 413 ng/g noirharman.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680902]
* Harman(e) (1-methyl-β-carboline) in cigarette smoke, cooked meat [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15035999], particularly chicken[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17497412], cooked fish, toasted bread [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15764332][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15764332] and coffee [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12227938]. Harman is a a tremor-producing neurotoxin. Meat consumption is higher in men with essential tremor [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18382115]. Harman also impairs learning [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23107644][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23103833] through the nicotinic cholinergic system [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21965190] and alters behaviour [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23015542]). Daily total dietary exposure is estimated at max 1000 ng/kg bodyweight (daily endogenous formation 20 ng/kg)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15036003] Griddled pork loin contains up to 991 ng/g harman.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680902]
* Harmine (7-methoxy-1-methyl-β-carboline); in smoked salmon and soft cheese [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20655538]; genotoxic [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11903953], induces dopamine release [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11903953], inhibits the enzymes MAO-A (which may cause accumulation of mono-amines), DYRK1A, CLK1, CLK2 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22673832], phosphodiesterase [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16750635] and acetylcholinesterase [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19784581]) UV light exposure increases toxicity of harmine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3062322]
* Harmaline (7-methoxy-1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole) in beer, coffee and cheese [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17386681]; psychoactive, induces dopamine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12895680] and nitric oxide release and inhibits phosphodiesterase [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16750635], acetylcholinesterase [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19784581] and MAO-A.
* Harmalol (1-Methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indol-7-ol) in beer, coffee and cheese [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17386681]; induces melanogenesis [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21189160] interferes with DNA synthesis [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20541950] and inhibits the enzymes acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21838142]
* 1-acetyl-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (in ketchup and heated tomato concentrate[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18313932]; selectively decreases responding [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3021479] and may interact with other beta-carbolines[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3920465])
* 3,4-dinitro-1-methyl-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid in soy sauce and beer [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16306709]
* Tryptoline (1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline) in sausages[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15113173]; a MAO-A inhibitor [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16386263])
* 1-furyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid in soy sauce and bean paste [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16306709]
* 1-(5’-hydroxymethylfuryl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid in bean paste [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16306709]
* 1-hydroxymethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid in smoked foods. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1397393]
* 1-pentahydroxypentyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid in fruit- and vegetable- (heat-involved) products (jams etc) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12137498]
* Flazin (1-(5'- hydromethyl-2'-furyl)-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid) in soy sauce; cytotoxic [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17336271] and induces quinone reductase (QR) activity [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21332190])
* Perlolyrin (in soy sauce [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3369932]; weakly cytotoxic [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18715034] induces quinones reductase (QR) activity [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21332190])
* 1-(1,3,4,5-tetrahydroxypent-1-yl)-β-carboline
* 1-(1,4,5-trihydroxypent-1-yl)-β-carboline
* 1-(1,5-dihydroxypent-3-en-1-yl)-β-carboline; in various foods, but particularly ketchup, soy sauce, and fish sauce.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11368624].
* 1-(1,4-dihydroxybutyl)-β-carboline
* 1-(1,3,4-trihydroxybutyl)-β-carboline (tryptophan + xylose) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10563847]

'''beta-Carbolines in fruits and plants'''

Some beta-carbolines may be natural in some raw foods, whereas the product of cooking in others (or in the same food). MTCA is naturally present in fruits; oranges, mandarins, bananas, pears etc. As fruit ripens and gets softer during storage, MTCA levels increase. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10606547] Besides fruits, THCA is naturally present in raw fish, and raw meat (and humans) and partly converted in MTCA due to cooking, whereas the levels of both THCA and MTCA (and mutagenic harman and norharman) are increased by cooking. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11103270][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10735282] Tetrahydro-beta-carbolines generally cannot induce mutation. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1499775]

* 1-methyltryptoline (1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline = tetrahydro-harman) in sausages [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15113173], tomato and kiwi; antioxidant [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14767717]and MAO-A inhibitor [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16386263])
* THCA (1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-beta-carboline-3-carboxylic acid) in fruits [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10606547], raw (and cooked) fish and meat [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11103270], toasted bread, beer, cider, wine vinegar, soy and tabasco sauce and blue cheese. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9129310]
* MTCA (1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid) acting as antioxidant [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14530594] in fruits [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14767717][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10606547], cooked fish [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11103270], soy sauce [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6574460], vinegar [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22957895], wine, beer, yoghurt, tabasco, blue cheese [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9129310] and fermented garlic. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17039401] MTCA is a xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitor, thus inhibiting uric acid formation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22957895] MTCA is (co)mutagenic in the presence of nitrite, which is inhibited by components present in oranges.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9714813]
* MTCdiC (1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-1,3-dicarboxylic acid) in aged garlic (not raw[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16484551]); a superoxide scavenger [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21318303])
* 6-hydroxy-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline in alcoholic beverages [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6853856], bananas, pineapple and tomato; acting as an antioxidant [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14611187]
* 1-(2-pyrrolidinethione)-3-yl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid in fermented radish root. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10215356]

'''beta-Carbolines in the seeds of ''Peganum harmala'' '''
Also known as ''Harmal'' or ''Syrian Rue''.
* Harmine (7-methoxy-1-methyl-β-carboline)
* Harmaline (7-methoxy-1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole)
* Harmalan (1-methyl-3,4-dihydro-beta-carboline)
* Harmol [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12609665]
* Harmalol (1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indol-7-ol)
* Tetrahydroharmine ((7-methoxy-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline)
* Harmine (methyl-7-methoxy-β-carboline-1-carboxylate)
* Harmilinic acid (7-methoxy-3,4-dihydro-β-carboline-1-carboxylic acid)
* Harmanamide (1-carbamoyl-7-methoxy-β-carboline)
* Acetylnorharmine (1-acetyl-7-methoxy-β-carboline)

==Author==
Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966
Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)

Lipid peroxidation

2023-03-15T13:59:14Z

RRM: /* Author */

Lipid peroxidation is the oxidative degradation of lipids, endogenously, or in cooking.
When radicals react with non-radicals, this always creates another radical. When a fatty acid reacts with a radical, a fatty acid-radical is created. This fatty acid-radical may react with oxygen to form a peroxyl-fatty acid radical. This peroxyl-fatty acid radical may react with another free fatty acid, producing two compounds: another fatty acid radical and a lipid peroxide. This cycle is ended by an anti-oxidant, or (if there are lots of radicals) by another radical, because when two radicals react, they produce a non-radical. Anti-oxidants end a radical chain reaction by getting oxidized themselves (rendering a weaker reactant).

Lipid peroxidation is catalyzed by all [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metals transition metals]. Lipid peroxidation yields various compounds of different stability.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2183068] Such carbonyls are generated by both lipid peroxidation and by autoxidation of sugars. Specific carbonyls, such as alpha-dicarbonyls, may be aldehydic or ketonic (or both) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16646000], and are very potent [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Maillard_reaction Maillard reaction] intermediates, yielding advanced glycation end products (AGEs) as well as advanced lipoxidation end products (ALEs). The Maillard reaction and lipid peroxidation are intimately interrelated, and the products of each reaction influence the other, sharing intermediates and products.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037254]

==Susceptibility to oxidation==
All fatty acids are eventually subject to oxidation, but the route differs:
* particularly [b][i]non[/i]-PUFAs[/b] are utilized for energy (aerobic meatbolism rendering reactive oxygen species (ROS)), eventually entering the Krebs cycle, in which they may be converted into Pyruvic acid (an alpha-keto acid) or alpha-Ketoglutaric acids which are potent Maillard precursors/intermediates (yielding CML etc).
* particularly [b]PUFAs[/b] are vulnerable to lipid peroxidation (a radical chain reaction rendering lipid peroxyl radicals and lipid hydroperoxide), also yielding Maillard intermediates (and subsequently CML etc). As PUFAs are used for other purposes than energy (eicosanoids etc, see post above), PUFAs are protected against lipid peroxidation by antioxidants and enzymes.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are more susceptible to lipoxidation than other fatty acids because they contain multiple carbon units with double bonds.
The carbon unit in between two double-bonded carbon units is called a methylene bridge. This carbon unit has less energy invested in its bonds with the two hydrogen atoms,
which makes these hydrogens more reactive. Long chain saturated fatty acids (such as palmitic and stearic acid) are also subject to lipid peroxidation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4032981] Oleic acid (monounsaturated fatty acid) is relatively stable.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12071306] Both oleic acid and palmitoleic acid act as relative lipid peroxidation inhibitors.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3416006]

The peroxidation index (very) roughly reflects the relative susceptibility of unsaturated fatty acids to peroxidation. In that index, monounsaturated fatty acids are considered to be 40-fold less vulnerable than fatty acids with one methylene bridge (dienoic fatty acids; containing 2 double-bonded carbon units). Trienoic fatty acids (with 3 double bonds) are twice as vulnerable as dienoic fatty acids, and tetraenoic (4 double bonds) 4-fold more vulnerable, pentaenoic (5 double bonds) 6-fold more vulnerable and hexaenoic (6 double bonds) are 8-fold more vulnerable to peroxidation than dienoic fatty acids.[http://jn.nutrition.org/content/130/12/3028/T1.expansion.html]

==Endogenous lipoxidation==
Question: Why does nature use PUFAs for essential processes, as they are relatively susceptible to oxidation?
Answer: [i]because[/i] they are oxygen-sensitive. "nature uses this sensitivity for signalling processes by producing lipidhydroperoxides (LOOHs) by any change to cell membrane structure." [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20230283]

[b][u]Enzymatic lipoxidation[/u][/b]
Whenever the membrane gets damaged / altered, due to cell proliferation, wounding or aging,
and also by the extend of synaptic activity, phospholipases in the membrane are activated.
These phospholipases cleave specific phospholipids localized in the phospholipid layer of the cell wal (membrane reservoirs), which liberates PUFAs.
These PUFAs are broken down by lipoxygenases (LOX), which generates lipid hydroperoxides (LOOHs).
Bivalent metal ions within the active site of LOX catalyse this LOOH production.
LOOHs produce lipid messengers, which modulate signaling cascades, contributing to development, differentiation, function (e.g., memory)
, protection, regeneration, and repair of neurons and overall regulation of neuronal, glial, and endothelial cell functional integrity. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16179516]
The metal ions generate radicals which are transformed within the enzyme complex to non-radical molecules.
"peroxyl radicals generated as intermediates cannot leave the enzyme complex" [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12450769]
"Thus radicals never leave the enzyme complex except in severe stress situations." [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20230283] Non-radical metabolites produced through enzymatic lipoxidation may get processed by the lysosome, thus enzymatic lipoxidation contributes to [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Autophagy autophagy]. Autophagy is the recycling of cell material within the cell. Autophagy is associated to longevity.

In enzymatic lipoxidation, one of the messengers created from DHA, is neuroprotectin D1; NPD1 (10,17S-docosatriene).
When retinal pigment epithelial cells are exposed to,oxidative stress, NPD1 is synthesized.
"NPD1 potently counteracts oxidative stress-triggered apoptotic DNA damage in RPE,
upregulates antiapoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-x(L), and decreases proapoptotic Bax and Bad expression".[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16179516] NPD1 protects against cell damage from from oxidative-stress [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15152078] mediated by aging/disease. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17670936]
"Deficits in DHA or its peroxidation (NPD1) appear to contribute to inflammatory signaling, cell death,
and neuronal dysfunction in Alzheimer disease (AD)". (age-related neurological disorder) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19022980]

[b][u]Non-enzymatic lipoxidation[/u][/b]
If the amount of free PUFAs (the impact of the damage/change/attack) exceeds a certain amount, LOX commit suicide. (in severe stress situations)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525868]
Thats where the enzymatic reaction switches to a non-enzymic reaction.
This suicide liberates free iron ions that react with LOOHs (nonenzymic lipid peroxidation), creating radicals.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11976183]
These peroxylradicals (LOO*) are not liberated enzymically, and thus they are not trapped within the enzym complex.
Peroxylradicals generate a second set of signalling compounds, but also cause severe damage.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12324235]
LOOHs produced in [b][i]non[/i][/b]enzymic reaction induce generation of ROS (reactive oxygen species) and cell death (apoptosis).
Non-enzymatic lipoxidation and elevated apoptosis are involved in all inflammatory diseases
and associated with the oxidation of a great variety of biological compounds, including proteins and nucleic acids. "cancer might be the consequence of a low response of cells to induce apoptotic (cell death/suicide) lipid peroxidation processes". [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12450769]

==Cooking==
Dietary cooked food-PUFAs may add to the influence of endogenous lipidoxidation, as they are (non-enzymatically) decomposed by heat, generating LOOHs, LO* and LOO* radicals. (generated by frying of fats) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17914157] Cooking oils may produce various lipid oxidation products, such as n-alkanes, branched alkanes, alkenes, n-alkanoic acids, n-alkenoic acids, carbonyls, aromatics, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and lactones. Carbonyls and fatty acids (n-alkanoic and n-alkenoic acids) make up a significant portion of the organic compounds.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11883419] Even if a pure lipid hydroperoxide is subjected to decomposition a great variety of products is generated, since primary products suffer further transformations. (into 2-butenal, hexanal, 5-oxodecanal, buten-1,4-dial, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11325611]. These products are adsorbed in the intestine, and at least partly incorporated in low density lipoproteins (LDLs).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11976183]

* Oils and fats experience various degrees of increase in saturation during cooking/frying use, with little consistency of used cooking oil obtained from the same source.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19592239]
* Unsaturated oils are more rapidly degraded. Oils with low linoleic acid and high content of palmitic acid are relatively resistant to frying temperatures.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22980810]
* After thermal processing, soybean oil contained a 15-fold higher level of free fatty acids (as % of total fat; mainly triglycerides), 8-fold higher peroxide value, 39-fold higher p-anisidine value, 19-fold higher total oxidation value, 8.5-fold more reactive substances, and 2.5 fold more trans fatty acids.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21675932]
* The mean trans fat content of sunflower oil used for cooking was 4.2%, compared to vegetable mixture oils 3.1%.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18426633]
* Trans fatty acids levels in commercial Spanish foods differe greatly, ranging from 0.1% in refined olive oils to 20.9% in french fries.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8889625]
* Olive oil is relatively resistant to frying conditions, due to superior amounts of minor antioxidant compounds, characterized by significantly reduced levels of oxidation and hydrolysis, compared to vegetable oil with higher vitamin E contents.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20678538] The level of these minor antioxidant compounds (phenolics) in olive oil is reduced with each time the oil is used for frying; retention of phenolics went down from 70-80% (first frying) to 20-30% (eighth frying).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12090031] In another study extra-virgin olive oil was clearly nongenotoxic, and flax seed oil more genotoxic than sesame seed oil, wheat germ oil and soy oil.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15611939] When lambs were fed 10% linseed oil (=68% PUFA) + 17% olive cake, this increased PUFA in phospholipids and vitamin E in muscle, without compromising the meat's oxidative stability.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23273482]
* Fatty acid compositions of red pepper seed oils did not change with roasting time (6-12 min. at 210°C). Fatty acid profile: 74% linoleic acid, 13% palmitic acid, 10% oleic acid, 2% stearic acid, 0.4% linolenic acid, 0.3% palmitoleic acid and 0.2% myristic acid.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10564041]
* After pan-frying fish, omega-6/omega-3 ratio had increased from 0.08 in raw cod to 1.01 (with olive oil) and 6.63 (with sunflower oil) in fried cod. In farmed salmon, the omega-6/omega-3 ratio hardly changed from 0.38 (raw) to 0.39 (olive oil) and 0.58 (sunflower oil) in fried salmon.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20492236]
* Linseed oil added to rabbit feed enhanced long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis, and increased meat oxidation after cooking of the rabbit meat.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18627165]
* Supplementation of used coconut oil (20%) to the chick diet resulted in rapid accumulation of (saturated) shorter chain fatty acids (12:0 and 14:0) in liver and hepatic mitochondria, increasing cellular death rates.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9297804]
* Beef contains more mono- and di-unsaturated fatty acids than poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Increasing PUFA in meat by increasing PUFA in feedings resulted in a 4-fold increase in lipid oxidation products due to cooking of the meat; most lipidoxidation products coming from (PUFA-initiated) auto-oxidation of the predominant mono- and di-unsaturated fatty acids.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10564028] In another study, cooking of beef from cattle fed a high-PUFA diet, did not result in changes in the relative distribution of fatty acids upon cooking (140°C for 30min). Cooking did not cause thermal degradation of PUFA, or thermal degradation or oxidative synthesis of conjugated linoleic acid (a trans fatty acid).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22064168]
* When peanuts are roasted in a microwave, heating them shortly already significantly increases the formation of fatty acid peroxides.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11534464]

==Inhibitors==
The body's defense against lipid peroxidation is triggered by the damage that lipid oxidation causes. Expression and activity of key enzymes involved in antioxidant and phase II detoxification pathways are elevated in response to a long term high omega-3 intake (and the resulting damage).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21880016]
In general, water-soluble antioxidants (vitamin C, glutathione, lipoic acid, uric acid) act within the cell, and lipid-soluble antioxidants (vitamin E, carotenes, coenzyme Q) protect cell membranes from lipid peroxidation.

* '''Enzymes'''; Various enzymes, including glutathione-related enzymes, reverse or protect against the effects of oxidative damage. Methionine sulfoxide reductases specifically repair metionine modifications; methionine being among the amino acids the most susceptible to oxidation. Overexpression of these enzymes increases resistance against oxidative stress.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16803968]

* '''Glutathione'''; Acetylcysteine (inhibits CML formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12644946]) is derived from cysteine, and is a precursor in the formation of glutathione. The glutathione-dependent enzyme glyoxalase I metabolizes alpha-dicarbonyls.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17590998] There is a time-dependent effect of n-3 PUFAs on the antioxidant response systems in the heart. Not after 3 weeks, but after 14 weeks, "expression and activity of key enzymes involved in antioxidant and phase II detoxification pathways were elevated in hearts from mice fed the n-3 PUFA diet, but not in hearts from mice fed the diet containing almost no PUFA.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21880016]

* '''Vitamin C''' has both chelating and reducing properties at once. Ascorbic acid in a dose-dependent manner suppresses lipid peroxidation of reoxygenated liver tissue. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7733675]

* '''Anthocyanins'''; More so than vitamin C (and resveratrol), cyanidin-3-O-beta-glucopyranoside, the main anthocyanin in orange juice (particularly from pigmented oranges), is a highly efficient oxygen free radical scavenger, inhibiting lipid peroxidation, due to its redox potential.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11811546]

* '''Vitamin E''' protects heart phospholipids against peroxidative deterioration.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1637499] Vitamin E inhibits GO formation as a lipid peroxidation product[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7959459] and substantially inhibits CML formation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9022079], or hardly.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10381276] Vitamin E levels correlate with endogenous secretory receptors in defending against plaque formation induced by AGEs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23182189] Vitamin E significantly reduces malonaldehyde (lipid peroxidation product) in cooked chicken.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20308404]

* '''[http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Autophagy#Caloric_restriction Caloric restriction]''' eliminates lipoxidation products and dysfunctional organelles. Caloric restriction reduces levels of CML in collagen[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7583789] Greater levels of pyridoxamine 5'-phosphate (a precursor of pyridoxamine) were found in liver, kidney and heart of dietary restricted animals.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10204830]

* '''Vitamin B6''' (Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate; PLP); PLP and pyridoxal are the most effective lipid glycation inhibitors.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16470027][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20957396] Pyridoxamine, pyridoxine, pyridoxal and their 5'-phosphates are precursors for the active form of PLP or vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate). PLP is riboflavin-5′-phosphate dependent, derived from vitamin B2. A lack of dietary B6 increases damage by lipid peroxidation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15219924] Vitamin B6 (in mg/100g) in raw foods: 0.96 (Souci et al) in sardine; 0.93 in yellowfin tuna; 0.85 in Skipjack tuna; 0.82 (Souci et al: 0.98) in wild Atlantic salmon (farmed: 0.60); 0.55 in wild Coho salmon (farmed: 0.66); 0.54 in walnuts (0.87 according to Souci et al); 0.53 in Hass avocado and beef tenderloin; 0.46 in bluefin tuna; 0.44 in King mackerel and chicken meat; 0.40 in wild Chinook salmon, Atlantic and Spanish mackerel; 0.37 in banana; 0.31 in hazelnuts; 0.30 in egg yolk; 0.29 in California avocado; 0.22 in grape juice and dutchcured herring; 0.17 in wild Sockeye salmon; 0.12 in mango; 0.10 in apple juice; 0.08 in Florida avocado; 0.05 in orange juice.[http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/list]

* '''Pyridoxamine''' inhibits the chemical modification of protein by ALEs during lipid peroxidation reactions.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10801874] Pyridoxamine chelates the metals crucial to the redox reaction.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11677237] Pyridoxamine traps and cleaves alpha-dicarbonyls (intermediates in glycoxidation and lipoxidation reactions).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12923193] It reacts with the carbonyl group in Amadori compounds and the strong stability of pyridoxamine complexes is the key in its post-Amadori inhibition action.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18434162] Pyridoxamine also traps reactive oxyen species (ROS)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15905958] In food, pyridoxamine is also present as pyridoxamine 5’-phosphate (PMP), which is converted to pyridoxamine by intestinal phosphatases. PMP (in nmol/g) in foods: 22.9 in dried small anchovy; 4.8 in chicken fillet; 4.2 in garlic; 2.6 in carrot; 1.0 in egg yolk. Pyridoxamine (in nmol/g) in foods: 2.3 in egg yolk; 2.2 in dried small anchovy, 2.0 in chicken fillet; 1.3 in carrot and 0.8 in garlic.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3319133] The raw meats (sashimi) of fatty seawater fishes contain a lot of PLP and/or PMP. Five portions of sushi with 20g of fatty seawater sashimi toppings would supply with vitamin B6 recommended by the Japanese RDA.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22133098]

* '''alpha-Lipoic acid''' inhibits AGEs formation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9022079] by inhibiting lipid peroxidation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16325165] alpha-Lipoic acid is endogenously derived from caprylic acid, which is endogenously synthesized and present in coconut oil (7.6%), palm kernel oil (4.8%) and sheep milk (0.12%). alpha-Lipoic acid acts with carnitine (from lysine and methionine), improving mitochondrial-supported bioenergetics and also improving general antioxidant status, attenuating any increase in oxidative stress with age.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16430943] alpha-Lipoic acid improves mitochondrial function [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9973329] and reverses all three indexes of oxidative stress (protein carbonyls, lipidoxidation, oxidation-induced changes in synaptosomal membrane proteins) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12603840]

* '''Carnitine''' in combination with alph-lipoic acid synergistically lower oxidative stress more than either compound alone.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11854487] By far the highest levels of carnitine are found in red meat.

* '''Taurine''' (from cysteine, fish or meat) inhibits AGE formation by inhibiting lipid peroxidation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14500045]

* '''Phenols''' (in plant foods) may enhance or inhibit Maillard reaction product formation. Though green tea ameliorates plasma hydroperoxide levels, it enhances CML formation. In bovine serum albumin incubated with ribose, the natural phenol desgalactotigonin inhibits, whereas quercetin and acteoside enhance CML formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18079486]

* '''Curcumin''' is a polyphenolic bioactive compound in turmeric. In fruit-flies, curcumin at 0.05% and 0.1% of diet increased mean lifespan by 6.2% to 25.8%, decreasing malondialdehyde levels, and increasing superoxide dismutase activity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22653297]

* '''Oleic acid'''; Supplementary oleic acid protects against endogenous lipid peroxidation by reducing the production of lipid peroxidation products and reducing oxidant stress induced injury.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2058691] Monounsaturated fatty acids (eg oleic acid) positively correlates in cardiac muscle and life span.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20981551] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15820615] Oleic acid in foods, as percentage of total fat: Hazelnuts 77%; Olive oil 72% (2% as free oleic acid); avocado 66%; rapeseed oil and Macadamia nuts 59%; sheabutter 45%; lard 41%, sesame oil 40%; beef 39%; egg yolks and palm oil 37%; cocoa butter 33%; Brazil nuts 32%; lamb 29%; maize oil 28%; chicken 27%; butter 25%; salmon 22%; sunflower oil and turkey 21%; soybean oil 20%; herring 19%; linseed oil 18%; tuna 17%; grapeseed oil and walnut oil 16%; walnuts 15%; palm kernel oil 14%; mackerel 13%; sardine 12%; coconut oil 7%.

* '''Oleanolic acid''' (in garlic) inhibits CML formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17658830]

* '''Capsaicin''' (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonemide), the major pungent in hot peppers (genus Capsicum) inhibits membrane lipid peroxidation (formation of malondialdehyde) and carbonyl formation in human red blood cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16557614]

* '''Ursolic acid''' (in apples (particularly the peel), prunes, basil, rosemary, lavender, oregano, thyme) inhibits CML formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17658830]

* '''Cholesterol''' increases rigidity of liposome membranes, making the membrane more resistant to radical attack.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21185813]

* '''Furan fatty acids''' are, after consumption, incorporated in human tissue, acting as scavengers of lipidoxidation products (LOO* and LO* radicals). Furan fatty acids are present in algae and fish.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17914157]

==High omega-3 intakes==
Omega-3 fats are most susceptible to lipid peroxidation, including in the heart mitochondria. Supplemental omega-3, however, is not associated with heart attacks and/or elevated death rates. "Of 15,159 titles and abstracts assessed, 48 RCTs (36,913 participants) and 41 cohort studies were analysed. No strong evidence of reduced risk of total mortality or combined cardiovascular events. No effect of omega 3 on total mortality or cardiovascular events. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16565093] From another review: "Of the 3635 citations retrieved, 20 studies of 68,680 patients were included. No statistically significant association was observed with all-cause mortality, cardiac death, sudden death, myocardial infarction and stroke [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22968891]

The allowed intake for omega−3 is 1.6 grams/day for men and 1.1 grams/day for women. The acceptable macronutrient distribution range for omega-3 is 0.6% to 1.2% of total energy.[http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/DRI//DRI_Energy/energy_full_report.pdf] Regarding other sources, the recommendations for minimum PUFA intake to prevent gross EFA deficiency are about 3% of total energy intake. Recommendations for prevention of heart disease are 8-10% of energy. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2258533] In elderly Japanese subjects, a 3 gram/day increase of dietary ALA could increase serum EPA and DHA in 10 months without any major adverse effects.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10737229]

In human breast milk, up to 2% of total fat are long-chain PUFA [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12947449], to support rapid brain development, as omega-3 fatty acids play a critical role in the development and function of the central nervous system (CNS).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15535884] 20% of the dry weight of the brain is made up of PUFAs and 33% of fatty acids in the CNS are PUFAs. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15129302/]

==Author==
Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966
Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)

Maillard reaction

2023-03-15T13:58:51Z

RRM: /* Author */

Foods exposed to drying, frying, roasting, baking or broiling contain hundreds of chemical compounds and possess net mutagenic activity. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3757959] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1474410/ Full Free Text]
The Maillard reaction is responsible for many of these compounds, and many colors and flavors in foods. Well known Maillard reaction products include [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines (HCAs)] (including beta-carbolines), [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Acrylamide acrylamides] and [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Styrene styrene], which may have antioxidant properties, but may also be mutagenic and/or neuroactive, or even neurotoxic and/or carcinogenic.

Principally, it is the reaction between an amine and a reducing sugar (yielding many heterocyclic and carbocyclic compounds[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2675029]), usually requiring heat, but in practise it is way more complex than that. The Maillard reaction and lipid peroxidation are intimately interrelated, and the products of each reaction influence the other. They share intermediates and products, which are usually known as advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and advanced lipoxidation end products (ALEs). Polyunsaturated fats are most susceptible to lipid peroxidation, but also long saturated fats and mono-unsaturated fats are subject to lipid peroxidation. AGE/ALEs are analogous and participate similarly in both amino acid degradation and amino phospholipid/protein polymerization by identical mechanisms. In these systems, lipids and carbohydrates are competing in the chemical modification of amino phospholipids and proteins, in one general carbonyl pathway that can be initiated by both lipids and carbohydrates.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037254]

Aging is the outcome of the contest between chemistry and biology in living systems. Proteins with long life spans serve as cumulators of exposure to chemical damage, detectable as AGEs / ALEs. Damage to DNA accumulates as chemically "silent" (undetectable) errors in repair-insertions, deletions, substitutions, transpositions, and inversions in DNA sequences-that affect the expression and structure of proteins. These mutations are random, vary from cell to cell, and are passed forward from one cell generation to another, compromising the structure and function of biomolecules throughout the body.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11976210]

==Precursors==
In cooked foods, the Maillard reaction is heat induced, but Maillard reaction products are also formed inside the human body (endogenously). Endogenously, the degradation products (mainly alpha-oxoaldehydes) of glycolytic intermediates, glycated proteins and lipid peroxidation may all cause glycation of protein (including peptide hormones[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15113085]) and nucleotides, forming AGEs/ALEs. So that sugars, protein as well as lipids may be the source of Maillard reaction precursors. In cooked foods, amino and carbonyl groups are the most potent Maillard precursors. Amino groups (or the biogenic amines, or ammonium) of amino acids (bound in peptides or proteins, or free; cooking reduces free amino acid content[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814611006248]) predominantly react with carbonyl groups of reducing sugars (or lipid derived carbonyls) to form AGEs; advanced glycation end-products (or ALEs; advanced lipoxidation end-products). AGE immunoreactivity can increase exponentially when protein or fat is cooked with carbohydrates.[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC21074/] Due to the loss of amino acid residues, the Maillard reaction decreases protein quality and it also decreases protein digestibility. Maillard products can also inhibit the uptake and metabolism of free amino acids and of other nutrients such as zinc.[http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/58/5/779S.long Full Free Article]

* '''Asparagine''' may readily form [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Acrylamide acrylamide].
* '''Aspartic acid''' may also form acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315400]
* '''Arginine''' and '''histidine''' may yield Maillard reaction products with anti-oxidant properties.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20690142]
* '''Glutamine''' readily forms [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines (HCAs)], but may also yield 3-butenamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14565766]
* '''Glutamic acid''' may readily form HCAs or HMF (a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Melanoidins#Intermediates melanoid intermediate]), acrylamide (with glucose or fructose)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18029078] or 2-Pyrrolidinone.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14565766]
* '''Tryptophan''' and '''tyrosine''' readily form [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines (HCAs)], particularly in the presence of creatine.
* '''Phenylalanine''' may readily form HCAs or [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Styrene styrene].
* '''Alanine''' may react with glyoxylic acid to form 3-amino-4,5-dimethylfuran-2,3-dione[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21417407](a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins#End-products melanoid]), or with 1-DG forming several products.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20441226]
* '''beta-Alanine''' may yield acrylamide through the acrylic acid pathway.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315400]
* '''Lysine''' may readily form pent-4-en-1-amine or CEL, or react with furfural to form furpipate[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18448836](a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins#End-products melanoid])
* '''Glycine''' may form HCAs, or with pyruvic acid to form 3-amino-4,5-dimethylfuran-2,3-dione[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21417407], with methylglyoxal to from DMHF at low pH[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593173], with ribose to form 2-acetylfuran [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19090713], or other [a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins melanoidins] (in reaction with glucose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21150117] or xylose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19809196]).
* '''Cysteine''' may form 5-hydroxy-3-mercapto-2-pentanone in reaction with thiamine and xylose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18983164], or DMHF (a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins#Intermediates melanoid intermediate]), in reaction with methylglyoxal at high pH[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593173], or acrylamide (in reaction with ammonia, after conversion into pyruvic acid > acrylic acid).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438299]
* '''Threonine''' may form furan or 2-methylfuran ([http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins#End-products melanoidins]), with degraded hexoses.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18439018]
* '''Serine''' may form furan with degraded hexoses[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18439018], acrylamide (in reaction with ammonia, after conversion into pyruvic acid > acrylic acid)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438299], or (mostly through glyceraldehyde) methylpyrazines and (mostly through 2,3-butanedione) 2,3-dimethylpyrazines.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10725127]
* '''Carnosine''' may form acrylamide through the acrylic acid pathway [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16317786], but by reacting with acrolein[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10905545] (an aldehyde) it may prevent formation of other (cross-linking) AGEs[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16181134]

Reactivity of amino acids in peptides depends on which group (N-terminal or alpha-Amino) or side chain is free.[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10504703] Various reducing sugars vary in glycation activity. Pentoses are more reactive than hexoses, which are more reactive than disaccharides, though reactivity also depends on the reacting agent. Polyatomic anions (eg phosphate and carboxylate ions) contribute to the Maillard reaction by providing reactive intermediates directly from sugars.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14969556] Depending on the level of phosphate, the route of AGE formation may shift.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7578127] Unsaturated fatty acids also accelerate AGE/ALE formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10381276] Metals catalyze glycation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10391148] and also the autoxidation of sugars, yielding dicarbonyls.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7893666]

* '''Pentoses''': Arabinose, xylose, lyxose, ribose, ribulose, xylulose
* '''Hexoses''': Glucose, fructose, mannose, galactose, allose, altrose, gulose, idose, talose, sorbose, tagatose, psicose
* '''Disaccharides''': Sucrose (glucose-fructose), lactose (galactose-glucose), maltose (glucose-glucose), etc.
* '''Glucose-1-phosphate'''; Compared to glucose, when pyrolized in the presence of glycine, will generate 9-fold more trimethylpyrazine, 5-fold more 2,3-dimethylpyrazine and 6-fold more acetol.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12744667]
* '''Glucose-6-phosphate''' Compared to glucose, generates more [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins melanoidins], 'stabilizing' deoxyosones (1-DG and 3-DG; highly reactive intermediates).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12744667]

Similar to sugars (and protein), fatty acids may be decomposed (through β-oxidation) to generate acetyl CoA (a Maillard inhibitor), which maybe converted (in the Krebs cycle) into '''Pyruvic acid''' (an alpha-keto acid) or '''alpha-Ketoglutaric acids''' which are potent Maillard precursors/intermediates. When a radical reacts with a non-radical, this always creates another radical (unless the non-radical is an anti-oxidant) Lipid peroxidation (including of phospholipids) is readily initiated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). When these radicals react with a (non-radical) fatty acid, this yields (but does not depend on[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1326073]) another radical (hydroperoxide isomere)'. Such a radical chain reaction produces products of different stability[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2183068], including (reactive) malondialdehyde. This chain reaction may be stopped by an anti-oxidant (or when 2 radicals react). All fats are subject to [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Lipid_peroxidation lipid peroxidation].

==Inhibitors==
Nutrients / food constituents that inhibit lipid peroxidation and/or AGE/ALE formation, and/or prevent damage / counteract the effects.

* '''Vitamin B1''' prevents cell death induced by stress from carbonyls directly, maybe because thiamin pyrophosphate restores pyruvate and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenases inhibited by mitochondrial toxicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17918169]

* '''Nicotinamide''' (vitamin B3) inhibits AGE formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12644946]

* '''Antioxidants''' in general inhibit AGE formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8168645] by reducing lipidperoxidation, and by counteracting reactive oxygen species (ROS), which accelerate some of the effects of AGEs [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11937295].

* '''Vitamin C''' inhibits the formation of mutagenic AGEs from glucose, glycine and creatinine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10708985] On the other hand, a degradation product of vitamin C (L-threose) may also yield AGEs (formyl threosyl pyrrole) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7492603] and vitamin C (similar to metals) aids lipid peroxidation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3176059]

* '''Vitamin E''' protects heart phospholipids against peroxidative deterioration.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1637499] Vitamin E inhibits GO formation as a lipid peroxidation product[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7959459] and substantially inhibits CML formation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9022079], or hardly.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10381276] Vitamin E levels correlate with endogenous secretory receptors in defending against plaque formation induced by AGEs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23182189]

* '''Thiols / Mercaptans''' (sulfhydryl compounds) in general inhibit AGE formation. Examples are: Glutathione, cysteine and co-enzyme-A.

* '''Glutathione'''; Acetylcysteine (inhibits CML formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12644946]) is derived from '''cysteine''', and is a precursor in the formation of glutathione. Cysteine (binds to aldehydes) and glutathione inhibit the Maillard reaction more so than citric acid and oxalic acid. Though citric acid and oxalic acid also inhibit formation of the intermediates 3-DG and HMF.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21535485] Reactive intermediates such as GO, MGO, PGO and 3-DG, however, inhibit glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, by irreversively modifying arginine residues in GPx.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12653209]

* '''Enzymes'''; Fructosyl amine oxidase enzymes have the ability to deglycate Amadori products (Maillard intermediates) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15629109], and the damage to tissue protein and nucleotides by alpha-oxoaldehydes is suppressed through inhibition of aldolase B, preventing accumulation of methylglyoxal (and subsequent AGE formation, incl. CEL).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22911800] and by the metabolism of alpha-oxoaldehydes by the glutathione-dependent enzyme glyoxalase I, aldo-keto reductases [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17590998] Including degradation of MGO (and 3-DG) by aldehyde reductase [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9538214] [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/biochemistry1922/123/2/123_2_353/_pdf Full Free Text], 3-DG reductase [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8787803] superoxide dismutase and catalase.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9022079] These enzymatic activities are part of the enzymatic defence against glycation.

* '''Dietary restriction''', by inhibiting glycoxidation rate[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8552666] reduces oxidative stress by AGEs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8126349] Caloric restriction reduces levels of CML and pentosidine in collagen[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7583789], but also negatively affects wound healing.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7814778] Greater levels of pyridoxamine 5'-phosphate (a precursor of pyridoxamine) were found in liver, kidney and heart of dietary restricted animals.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10204830]

* '''Vitamin B6''' (Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate; PLP); PLP and pyridoxal are the most effective lipid glycation inhibitors.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16470027][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20957396] Pyridoxamine, pyridoxine, pyridoxal and their 5'-phosphates are precursors for the active form of PLP or vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate). PLP is riboflavin-5′-phosphate dependent, derived from vitamin B2. (riboflavin-5′-phosphate inhibits mutagenicity of some [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA)#Mutagenic_HCA_in_cooked_foods HCA]). A lack of dietary B6 increases damage by lipid peroxidation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15219924] Vitamin B6 (in mg/100g) in raw foods: 0.96 (Souci et al) in sardine; 0.93 in yellowfin tuna; 0.85 in Skipjack tuna; 0.82 (Souci et al: 0.98) in wild Atlantic salmon (farmed: 0.60); 0.55 in wild Coho salmon (farmed: 0.66); 0.54 in walnuts (0.87 according to Souci et al); 0.53 in Hass avocado and beef tenderloin; 0.46 in bluefin tuna; 0.44 in King mackerel and chicken meat; 0.40 in wild Chinook salmon, Atlantic and Spanish mackerel; 0.37 in banana; 0.31 in hazelnuts; 0.30 in egg yolk; 0.29 in California avocado; 0.22 in grape juice and dutchcured herring; 0.17 in wild Sockeye salmon; 0.12 in mango; 0.10 in apple juice; 0.08 in Florida avocado; 0.05 in orange juice.[http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/list]

* '''Pyridoxamine''' acts on various pathways in the glycation process. It inhibits the formation of AGEs [http://www.jbc.org/content/272/9/5430.long Full Free Text] and the chemical modification of protein by ALEs during lipid peroxidation reactions.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10801874] Pyridoxamine chelates the metals crucial to the redox reaction.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11677237] Pyridoxamine traps and cleaves alpha-dicarbonyls (intermediates in glycoxidation and lipoxidation reactions).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12923193] It reacts with the carbonyl group in Amadori compounds and the strong stability of pyridoxamine complexes is the key in its post-Amadori inhibition action.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18434162] Pyridoxamine also traps reactive oxyen species (ROS)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15905958] In food, pyridoxamine is also present as pyridoxamine 5’-phosphate (PMP), which is converted to pyridoxamine by intestinal phosphatases. PMP (in nmol/g) in foods: 22.9 in dried small anchovy; 4.8 in chicken fillet; 4.2 in garlic; 2.6 in carrot; 1.0 in egg yolk. Pyridoxamine (in nmol/g) in foods: 2.3 in egg yolk; 2.2 in dried small anchovy, 2.0 in chicken fillet; 1.3 in carrot and 0.8 in garlic.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3319133] The raw meats (sashimi) of fatty seawater fishes contain a lot of PLP and/or PMP. Five portions of sushi with 20g of fatty seawater sashimi toppings would supply with vitamin B6 recommended by the Japanese RDA.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22133098]

* '''alpha-Lipoic acid''' inhibits AGEs formation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9022079] by inhibiting lipid peroxidation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16325165] alpha-Lipoic acid is endogenously derived from caprylic acid, which is endogenously synthesized and present in coconut oil (7.6%), palm kernel oil (4.8%) and sheep milk (0.12%). alpha-Lipoic acid acts with carnitine (from lysine and methionine), improving mitochondrial-supported bioenergetics and also improving general antioxidant status, attenuating any increase in oxidative stress with age.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16430943] alpha-Lipoic acid improves mitochondrial function [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9973329] and reverses all three indexes of oxidative stress (protein carbonyls, lipidoxidation, oxidation-induced changes in synaptosomal membrane proteins) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12603840]

* '''Carnitine''' in combination with alph-lipoic acid synergistically lower oxidative stress more than either compound alone.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11854487] Vitamin C is essential in the formation of carnitine from lysine or methionine. By far the highest levels of carnitine are found in red meat.

* '''Taurine''' (from cysteine, fish or meat) inhibits AGE formation by inhibiting lipid peroxidation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14500045] and reducing serum glucose (by increasing glucose utilization).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15196090]

* '''Phenols''' (in plant foods) may enhance or inhibit Maillard reaction product formation. Though green tea ameliorates plasma hydroperoxide levels, it enhances CML formation. In bovine serum albumin incubated with ribose, the natural phenol desgalactotigonin inhibits, whereas quercetin and acteoside enhance CML formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18079486] Phenolic compounds such as p-coumeric acid, caffeic acid, sinapic acid, and cinnamic acid may react with Maillard reaction intermediates, and the yielded compounds may inhibit oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19817410] Phenolic antioxidants may inhibit formation of [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10503890]

* '''Curcumin''' is a polyphenolic bioactive compound in turmeric. In fruit-flies, curcumin at 0.05% and 0.1% of diet increased mean lifespan by 6.2% to 25.8%, decreasing malondialdehyde levels, and increasing superoxide dismutase activity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22653297]

* '''Oleic acid'''; Supplementary oleic acid protects against endogenous lipid peroxidation by reducing the production of lipid peroxidation products and reducing oxidant stress induced injury.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2058691] Oleic acid in foods, as percentage of total fat: Hazelnuts 77%; Olive oil 72% (2% as free oleic acid); avocado 66%; rapeseed oil and Macadamia nuts 59%; sheabutter 45%; lard 41%, sesame oil 40%; beef 39%; egg yolks and palm oil 37%; cocoa butter 33%; Brazil nuts 32%; lamb 29%; maize oil 28%; chicken 27%; butter 25%; salmon 22%; sunflower oil and turkey 21%; soybean oil 20%; herring 19%; linseed oil 18%; tuna 17%; grapeseed oil and walnut oil 16%; walnuts 15%; palm kernel oil 14%; mackerel 13%; sardine 12%; coconut oil 7%.

* '''Oleanolic acid''' (in garlic) inhibits pentosidine and CML formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17658830]

* '''Capsaicin''' (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonemide), the major pungent in hot peppers (genus Capsicum) inhibits membrane lipid peroxidation (formation of malondialdehyde) and carbonyl formation in human red blood cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16557614]

* '''Ursolic acid''' (in apples (particularly the peel), prunes, basil, rosemary, lavender, oregano, thyme) inhibits CML formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17658830]

* '''Cholesterol''' increases rigidity of liposome membranes, making the membrane more resistant to radical attack.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21185813]

* '''Furan fatty acids''' are, after consumption, incorporated in human tissue, acting as scavengers of lipidoxidation products (LOO* and LO* radicals). Furan fatty acids are present in algae and fish.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17914157]

==Intermediates==
Maillard intermediates that react with protein, nucleotides or basic phospholipids may be carbohydrate- (or protein-) or lipid-derived. The resulting end-products are advanced glycation end-products (AGE) and advanced lipoxidation end-products (ALE) respectively. Intermediates such as Amadori compounds and deoxyosones, are formed at percentage levels during model reactions.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18079482] Amadori compounds are a family of derivatives of aminodeoxysugars. Sugars that react with amino acids may form Amadori compounds (N-substituted 1-amino-1-deoxyketoses), which are labile Maillard intermediates. Major Amadori compounds in dried fruits are '''fructosylglutamate''' (from glucose + glutamate) in dried tomatoes (about 1.5%) and '''fructosylproline''' (glucose + proline) in dried apricots (about 0.2%).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15623289] Sulphiting (eg of dried fruits) may actually accelerate formation of Maillard compounds.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1298649] Transition metals accelerate the formation of Amadori compounds.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8987858]

* '''Fructosamine''' (1-Amino-1-deoxy-D-fructose; from glucose and amines) is a key intermediate of the Maillard reaction, rendering a specific aroma, taste, and color formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20837201]

* '''Fructoselysine''' may yield several AGEs, including pentosidine and CML.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1904067]

* '''Xylulosylglycine''' from xylose and glycine.

* '''N-(1-deoxy-D-fructos-1-yl)glycine''' (DFG)

Degradation of Amadori products yields dicarbonyls.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7578127] Carbonyls are also generated by lipid peroxidation and by autoxidation of sugars. Specific carbonyls, such as alpha-oxoaldehydes including glyoxals (GO, MGO, PGO etc) and deoxyosones (1-DG, 3-DG, 3-DP etc) are potent Maillard intermediates. Such potent alpha-dicarbonyls may be aldehydic or ketonic.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16646000] Reactive intermediates such as deoxyosones, GO and MGO are readily formed at 100°C.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12065691] alpha-Oxoaldehydes may form heterocyclic compounds in reaction with (guanidine derivatives from) protein-bound arginine or creatine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8525706] alpha-Oxoaldehydes are up to 20,000-fold more reactive than glucose in glycation processes and react with proteins (predominantly arginine, while arginine residues are highly present in receptor and enzyme active sites), nucleotides and basic phospholipids to form AGE/ALEs (particularly hydroimidazolones, highly present in cellular and extracellular proteins).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037229]

* '''Glucosone''' (D-arabino-hexos-2-ulose) induces lipid peroxidation, involving metal ions.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1291643]

* '''2,3-butanedione''' is formed from glucose.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10552645]

* '''2,3-pentanedione''' may be formed from glucose, or from alanine plus D-glucose, pyruvaldehyde or glyceraldehyde.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10552645]

* '''3-deoxygalactosone''' (3-DGal) and '''galactosone''' are 1,2-dicarbonyls from the degradation of galactose, at high concentrations in milk products, commercial apple juice (from 3-DG) and beer.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20822095]

* '''3-deoxyglucosone''' (3-deoxy-D-erythro-hexos-2-ulose; 3-DG; a 2-oxoaldehyde from glucose-glutamic acid, or from fructose without amino groups[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2780681]) 3DG accelerates the advanced stage of the Maillard reaction.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2157564][http://www.clinchem.org/content/36/4/631.long Full Free Text] Its levels (and of Pyrraline) are increased in diabetes [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8051120] [http://www.jbc.org/content/269/32/20275.long Free Full Text] and uremic patients.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7777110] 3-DG may yield pyrraline, pentosidine, CML and imidazolones.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10491986] Human aldehyde reductase (ALR) is an enzyme in our blood that rapidly detoxifies 3-DG when it is formed through the Maillard reaction in the human body.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8500767] 3-DG is detoxified by reduction to 3-DF (3-deoxyfructose) and subsequently reduced to 3-deoxy-hexitols (3-DH).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1550339]

* '''1-deoxyglucosone''' (1-DG; 1-deoxy-D-erythro-hexo-2,3-diulose, an alpha-dicarbonyl) Its degradation mainly yields lactic acid and glyceric acid[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20441226], but may also yield acetic acid released as sugar fragment.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037223]

* '''3-deoxypentosone''' (3-DP)

* '''3-deoxy-2-hexosulose''' may react with phenolic compounds.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19817410]

* '''1-deoxyhexo-2,3-diulose''' (an alpha-dicarbonyl) Its degradation is a key intermediate in Maillard chemistry, yielding carboxylic acids (glyceric acid, acetic acid; stable Maillard end-products), as well as unstable, reactive Maillard intermediates such as dicarbonyls (3,4-dihydroxy-2-oxobutanal, 1-hydroxybutane-2,3-dione, and 4-hydroxy-2-oxobutanal) and hydroxycarbonyls (acetol).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19422225]

* '''Dideoxyosones''' may result from dicarbonyls reacting with amino acids. Lysine, for example, may yield N6-(2,3-dihydroxy-5,6-dioxohexyl)-L-lysine, N6-(5,6-dihydroxy-2,3-dioxohexyl)-L-lysine or N6-(2,3-dihydroxy-4,5-dioxohexyl)-L-lysine, which subsequently may yield quinoxalines.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15183735] Notably N6-(2,3-dihydroxy-5,6-dioxohexyl)-l-lysinate is formed from lysine, which is highly reactive. It may yield glucosepane.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12757388]

* '''Glyoxal''' (GO) is a lipid peroxidation product [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7959459] and forms on autoxidation of glucose, and may yield CML.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7893666]

* '''Methylglyoxal''' (MGO, or 2-oxopropanal or pyruvaldehyde) is a metabolite of glucose (aldehyde), but also a ketone (from lipidoxidation). MGO readily binds to free (or bound in proteins) arginine, lysine, and cysteine, leading to the formation of Maillard reaction end-products (AGEs and ALEs). MGO is associated with hypertension.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22333481] Acute hyperglycemia increases MGO levels 1.27-fold, and resulting CML levels by 21%.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23163122] Serum MGO levels are elevated in diabetes patients.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10373458] Several commercial beverages contain very high levels of MGO.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18448797] Ammonolysis of MGO may render formamide, which may react with 2-aminopropanal (from MGO) to give carcinogenic 4- or 5-methylimidazole.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21186780]

* '''Phenylglyoxal''' (PGO)

* '''5-hydroxy-3-mercapto-2-pentanone''' from thiamine, cysteine, and xylose.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18983164]

* '''Oxazolidin-5-one''' from phenylalanine and glycolaldehyde[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18992878]

* '''Acrolein''' is a lipidoxidation product and ALE intermediate; it may yield HNE[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10905545] and FDP-lysine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18587559]

* '''Malondialdehyde''' (MDA) is a lipidoxidation product and ALE intermediate. Its highly reactive and a marker for oxidative stress, as it is generated from reactive oxygen species (ROS) degrading polyunsaturated fats. Its present in heated edible oils such as sunflower and palm oils. As transition metals catalyze lipid peroxidation, increased levels of zinc correspond with malondialdehyde levels in carps.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12084620]

* '''4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal''' (4-HNE) is an ALE intermediate; the primary alpha,beta-unsaturated hydroxyalkenal formed during lipidoxidation of polyunsaturated fats. (others are: 4-oxo-trans-2-nonenal, 4-hydroxy-trans-2-hexenal, 4-hydroperoxy-trans-2-nonenal and 4,5-epoxy-trans-2-decenal).

While the concentration of glucose Amadori products is relatively constant with age, glycoxidation products (protein oxidized by glycation products) accumulate in long-lived proteins in human tissue.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1858426] Glycoxidation reactions proceed by multiple routes. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7578127]

==End-products==
The formation of AGEs/ALEs is linked to aging of tissues and organs in general and to several diseases such as diabetes mellitus and Alzheimer's disease[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16342332]; A diet that is low in AGEs may reduce the risk of type 2 [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Diabetes diabetes] by increasing insulin sensitivity.[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27030534] Good glycemic control limits damage due to AGEs/ALEs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1904067] AGEs/ALEs are indicators of tissue aging.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14661090] Food-derived AGEs contribute to Alzheimer's Disease.[http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2014/02/19/1316013111] Some people argue that fluorescent AGEs (such as CML) may represent AGEs in general [http://www.biomed.cas.cz/physiolres/pdf/51/51_313.pdf], but fluorescent AGEs may only represent endogenously formed AGEs, formed at low temperatures, and not AGEs formed at much higher temperatures. Maillard end-products include [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines (HCAs)] (such as IQ, MeIQ, MeIQx etc[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1516842], [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Acrylamide acrylamides], [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Styrene styrene], [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins melanoidins] and many other compounds.

* '''5-methylimidazoline-4-one''' (MG-H1; non-toxic), from arginine and methylglyoxal.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037228]

* '''4(5)-Methylimidazole''' is readily formed from ammonia and methylglyoxal. Its a carcinogenic found in commercial cola soft drinks; from 0.30 μg/mL to 0.36 μg/mL[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21186780]

* '''glyceraldehyde-derived pyridinium''' (GLAP; toxic) induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in HL-60 cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037228]

* '''Pyrraline''' (ε-2-(formyl-5-hydroxymethyl-pyrrol-1-yl)-L-norleucine) is an AGE formed from 3-deoxyglucosone in the non-enzymatic reaction between glucose and the epsilon-amino group of lysine residues on proteins.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7873594] Pyrraline is found predominantly in the sclerosed extracellular matrix of glomerular and arteriolar renal tissues from both diabetic and aged nondiabetic individuals.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1526333] Pyrraline and pentosidine are particularly present in plaques in brain tissue from patients with Alzheimer disease.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8202552]

* '''Pentosidine''' (an imidazo[4,5-b]pyridinium) is often used as a marker for AGE stress. It comprises lysine and arginine, cross-linked by a pentose (isomers of ribose, arabinose, xylose or lyxose, but also by vitamin C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1904866], Amadori compounds, 3-deoxyglucosone, and other sugars (pentoses as well as hexoses[http://www.jbc.org/content/266/18/11649.long Full Free Article]). Its formation is inhibited by aminoguanidine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1904867]). Pentosidine is found in plasma proteins and red blood cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2513322] Pentosidine level increases from 5 to 75 pmol/mg collagen over lifespan. A 3 to 10 fold increase was noted in subjects with severe end-stage renal disease requiring hemodialysis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2298912] Pentosidine levels correlate with uremia[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1813279][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1733803] and bone and joint disorders.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8185700] The amount of pentosidine per collagen in human articular cartilage increases linearly with age.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1664425]

* '''Glucosepane''' is a lysine-arginine protein cross-linking product derived from D-glucose, structurally related to pentosidine. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10428377] It is the most prevalent cross-linking AGE in human tissue.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037276]

* '''Pent-4-en-1-amine''' Is considered the lysine-glucose counterpart of [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Acrylamide acrylamide] (instead of asparagine-glucose). In the presence of sugars, lysine, similarly to asparagine and phenylalanine, can undergo carbonyl-assisted decarboxylative deamination reaction to generate pent-4-en-1-amine. Alternatively, decarboxylation of lysine generates cadaverine (1,5-diaminopentane) followed by deamination to form pent-4-en-1-amine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20205470]

* '''Vesperlysines''' (AGEs)

* '''N(ε)-(carboxyethyl)lysine''' (CEL, an AGE/ALE); Incubation of bovine serum albumine with glucose yields methylglyoxal (a reactive glucose metabolite), which subsequently (in combination with lysine) yields CEL.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12668073] The latter is inhibited by arginine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22518022] (as arginine also readily reacts with methylglyoxal)

* '''N(ε)-(carboxymethyl)lysine''' (CML, an AGE/ALE); In rats, during the processes of aging, hippocampal microvessels and hippocampal pyramidal neurons accumulate AGES, particularly CML. Further conjugation of CML seems to occur in the microvessels and pyramidal neurons of hippocampus and it brings about deleterious change of endothelial cells and pyramidal neuron death, causing deficiency of recognition and reference memory in rodents during the processes of aging.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15036569] In rats fed a diet high in polyunsaturated fats, CML and CEL levels increased in the brain, remained unchanged in the kidney, and decreased in the liver.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14641074] CML is readily created from intermediates by heat treatment over 80°C.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12065691] CML may be formed through various pathways.[http://www.jbc.org/content/270/17/10017.long Full Free Article]

* '''N(ε)-(carboxymethyl)hydroxylysine''' (CMhL). Hydroxylysine (an amino acid) is unique to collagen. The level of CMhL (and that of CML) accumulate with age in long-lived proteins in human tissues [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1858426] and are biomarkers for oxidative stress.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2010041]

* '''N(ε)-(malondialdehyde)lysine''' (MDL, an ALE); in rats fed high levels of polyunsaturated fats, MDL levels increased in all tissues measured (liver, kidney, brain).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14641074]

* '''N(ε)-(3-formyl-3,4-dehydropiperidino)lysine''' (FDP-lysine, an ALE; acrolein derived)) may reflect the cumulative burden of oxidative stress over long periods of time[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18587559] and is a biomarker for diabetic retinopathy.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21151599]

* '''N(ε)-(4-hydroxy-2-nonenal)lysine''' (4H2NL, an ALE);

* '''4-hydroxynonenal-lysine'''; an ALE.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10801874]

* '''Acetamide''' Amides are derivates of ammonia or (carboxylated) amines. Acetamide is a carcinogenic derived from acetic acid, by dehydrating ammonium acetate[http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/orgsyn/prepContent.asp?prep=cv1p0003], or by hydrolysis of acetonitrile[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a01_045.pub2/abstract]. Thermal degradation (>200°C) of chitin also yields acetamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/494808] Chitin is a good inducer for defense mechanisms in plants[http://www.yeacrops.com/Crop%20Protection%20Article.pdf], and present in fungi, the exoskeletons of crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters and shrimps, in mollusks, and in the internal shells of squid and octopus. Acetamide is also a byproduct of thermochemical treatment of lignocellulosic biomass.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21444255]

* '''Chloropropanols''' 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) is a chloropropanol.

* '''Imidazolones''' are the reaction products of the guanidino group of arginine with 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9077536] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC507942/ Full Free Text]

* '''4-hydroxy-trans-2,3-nonenal''' (HNE) is cytotoxic. Its formation is increased as the result of elevated lipidperoxidation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16162015], yielding acrolein.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10905545]

* '''2-ammonio-6-([2-[(4-ammonio-5-oxido-5-oxopentyl)amino]-4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-5-ylidene]amino)hexanoate''' (GODIC) is a cross-linking unit (lysine-arginine) in vivo and in foodstuffs, readily formed from GO or MGO.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10632059]

* '''2-ammonio-6-([2-[(4-ammonio-5-oxido-5-oxopentyl)amino]-4-methyl-4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-5-ylidene]amino)hexanoate''' (MODIC), is a cross-linking unit (lysine-arginine) in vivo and in foodstuffs, readily formed from GO or MGO.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10632059]

* (GOLD 3) imidazolium cross-linking unit
* (MOLD 4) imidazolium cross-linking unit

==Author==
Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966
Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)

Maillard reaction

2023-03-15T13:57:44Z

RRM: /* Author */

Foods exposed to drying, frying, roasting, baking or broiling contain hundreds of chemical compounds and possess net mutagenic activity. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3757959] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1474410/ Full Free Text]
The Maillard reaction is responsible for many of these compounds, and many colors and flavors in foods. Well known Maillard reaction products include [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines (HCAs)] (including beta-carbolines), [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Acrylamide acrylamides] and [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Styrene styrene], which may have antioxidant properties, but may also be mutagenic and/or neuroactive, or even neurotoxic and/or carcinogenic.

Principally, it is the reaction between an amine and a reducing sugar (yielding many heterocyclic and carbocyclic compounds[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2675029]), usually requiring heat, but in practise it is way more complex than that. The Maillard reaction and lipid peroxidation are intimately interrelated, and the products of each reaction influence the other. They share intermediates and products, which are usually known as advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and advanced lipoxidation end products (ALEs). Polyunsaturated fats are most susceptible to lipid peroxidation, but also long saturated fats and mono-unsaturated fats are subject to lipid peroxidation. AGE/ALEs are analogous and participate similarly in both amino acid degradation and amino phospholipid/protein polymerization by identical mechanisms. In these systems, lipids and carbohydrates are competing in the chemical modification of amino phospholipids and proteins, in one general carbonyl pathway that can be initiated by both lipids and carbohydrates.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037254]

Aging is the outcome of the contest between chemistry and biology in living systems. Proteins with long life spans serve as cumulators of exposure to chemical damage, detectable as AGEs / ALEs. Damage to DNA accumulates as chemically "silent" (undetectable) errors in repair-insertions, deletions, substitutions, transpositions, and inversions in DNA sequences-that affect the expression and structure of proteins. These mutations are random, vary from cell to cell, and are passed forward from one cell generation to another, compromising the structure and function of biomolecules throughout the body.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11976210]

==Precursors==
In cooked foods, the Maillard reaction is heat induced, but Maillard reaction products are also formed inside the human body (endogenously). Endogenously, the degradation products (mainly alpha-oxoaldehydes) of glycolytic intermediates, glycated proteins and lipid peroxidation may all cause glycation of protein (including peptide hormones[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15113085]) and nucleotides, forming AGEs/ALEs. So that sugars, protein as well as lipids may be the source of Maillard reaction precursors. In cooked foods, amino and carbonyl groups are the most potent Maillard precursors. Amino groups (or the biogenic amines, or ammonium) of amino acids (bound in peptides or proteins, or free; cooking reduces free amino acid content[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814611006248]) predominantly react with carbonyl groups of reducing sugars (or lipid derived carbonyls) to form AGEs; advanced glycation end-products (or ALEs; advanced lipoxidation end-products). AGE immunoreactivity can increase exponentially when protein or fat is cooked with carbohydrates.[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC21074/] Due to the loss of amino acid residues, the Maillard reaction decreases protein quality and it also decreases protein digestibility. Maillard products can also inhibit the uptake and metabolism of free amino acids and of other nutrients such as zinc.[http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/58/5/779S.long Full Free Article]

* '''Asparagine''' may readily form [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Acrylamide acrylamide].
* '''Aspartic acid''' may also form acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315400]
* '''Arginine''' and '''histidine''' may yield Maillard reaction products with anti-oxidant properties.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20690142]
* '''Glutamine''' readily forms [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines (HCAs)], but may also yield 3-butenamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14565766]
* '''Glutamic acid''' may readily form HCAs or HMF (a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Melanoidins#Intermediates melanoid intermediate]), acrylamide (with glucose or fructose)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18029078] or 2-Pyrrolidinone.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14565766]
* '''Tryptophan''' and '''tyrosine''' readily form [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines (HCAs)], particularly in the presence of creatine.
* '''Phenylalanine''' may readily form HCAs or [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Styrene styrene].
* '''Alanine''' may react with glyoxylic acid to form 3-amino-4,5-dimethylfuran-2,3-dione[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21417407](a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins#End-products melanoid]), or with 1-DG forming several products.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20441226]
* '''beta-Alanine''' may yield acrylamide through the acrylic acid pathway.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315400]
* '''Lysine''' may readily form pent-4-en-1-amine or CEL, or react with furfural to form furpipate[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18448836](a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins#End-products melanoid])
* '''Glycine''' may form HCAs, or with pyruvic acid to form 3-amino-4,5-dimethylfuran-2,3-dione[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21417407], with methylglyoxal to from DMHF at low pH[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593173], with ribose to form 2-acetylfuran [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19090713], or other [a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins melanoidins] (in reaction with glucose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21150117] or xylose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19809196]).
* '''Cysteine''' may form 5-hydroxy-3-mercapto-2-pentanone in reaction with thiamine and xylose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18983164], or DMHF (a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins#Intermediates melanoid intermediate]), in reaction with methylglyoxal at high pH[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593173], or acrylamide (in reaction with ammonia, after conversion into pyruvic acid > acrylic acid).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438299]
* '''Threonine''' may form furan or 2-methylfuran ([http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins#End-products melanoidins]), with degraded hexoses.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18439018]
* '''Serine''' may form furan with degraded hexoses[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18439018], acrylamide (in reaction with ammonia, after conversion into pyruvic acid > acrylic acid)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438299], or (mostly through glyceraldehyde) methylpyrazines and (mostly through 2,3-butanedione) 2,3-dimethylpyrazines.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10725127]
* '''Carnosine''' may form acrylamide through the acrylic acid pathway [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16317786], but by reacting with acrolein[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10905545] (an aldehyde) it may prevent formation of other (cross-linking) AGEs[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16181134]

Reactivity of amino acids in peptides depends on which group (N-terminal or alpha-Amino) or side chain is free.[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10504703] Various reducing sugars vary in glycation activity. Pentoses are more reactive than hexoses, which are more reactive than disaccharides, though reactivity also depends on the reacting agent. Polyatomic anions (eg phosphate and carboxylate ions) contribute to the Maillard reaction by providing reactive intermediates directly from sugars.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14969556] Depending on the level of phosphate, the route of AGE formation may shift.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7578127] Unsaturated fatty acids also accelerate AGE/ALE formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10381276] Metals catalyze glycation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10391148] and also the autoxidation of sugars, yielding dicarbonyls.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7893666]

* '''Pentoses''': Arabinose, xylose, lyxose, ribose, ribulose, xylulose
* '''Hexoses''': Glucose, fructose, mannose, galactose, allose, altrose, gulose, idose, talose, sorbose, tagatose, psicose
* '''Disaccharides''': Sucrose (glucose-fructose), lactose (galactose-glucose), maltose (glucose-glucose), etc.
* '''Glucose-1-phosphate'''; Compared to glucose, when pyrolized in the presence of glycine, will generate 9-fold more trimethylpyrazine, 5-fold more 2,3-dimethylpyrazine and 6-fold more acetol.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12744667]
* '''Glucose-6-phosphate''' Compared to glucose, generates more [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins melanoidins], 'stabilizing' deoxyosones (1-DG and 3-DG; highly reactive intermediates).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12744667]

Similar to sugars (and protein), fatty acids may be decomposed (through β-oxidation) to generate acetyl CoA (a Maillard inhibitor), which maybe converted (in the Krebs cycle) into '''Pyruvic acid''' (an alpha-keto acid) or '''alpha-Ketoglutaric acids''' which are potent Maillard precursors/intermediates. When a radical reacts with a non-radical, this always creates another radical (unless the non-radical is an anti-oxidant) Lipid peroxidation (including of phospholipids) is readily initiated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). When these radicals react with a (non-radical) fatty acid, this yields (but does not depend on[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1326073]) another radical (hydroperoxide isomere)'. Such a radical chain reaction produces products of different stability[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2183068], including (reactive) malondialdehyde. This chain reaction may be stopped by an anti-oxidant (or when 2 radicals react). All fats are subject to [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Lipid_peroxidation lipid peroxidation].

==Inhibitors==
Nutrients / food constituents that inhibit lipid peroxidation and/or AGE/ALE formation, and/or prevent damage / counteract the effects.

* '''Vitamin B1''' prevents cell death induced by stress from carbonyls directly, maybe because thiamin pyrophosphate restores pyruvate and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenases inhibited by mitochondrial toxicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17918169]

* '''Nicotinamide''' (vitamin B3) inhibits AGE formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12644946]

* '''Antioxidants''' in general inhibit AGE formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8168645] by reducing lipidperoxidation, and by counteracting reactive oxygen species (ROS), which accelerate some of the effects of AGEs [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11937295].

* '''Vitamin C''' inhibits the formation of mutagenic AGEs from glucose, glycine and creatinine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10708985] On the other hand, a degradation product of vitamin C (L-threose) may also yield AGEs (formyl threosyl pyrrole) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7492603] and vitamin C (similar to metals) aids lipid peroxidation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3176059]

* '''Vitamin E''' protects heart phospholipids against peroxidative deterioration.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1637499] Vitamin E inhibits GO formation as a lipid peroxidation product[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7959459] and substantially inhibits CML formation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9022079], or hardly.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10381276] Vitamin E levels correlate with endogenous secretory receptors in defending against plaque formation induced by AGEs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23182189]

* '''Thiols / Mercaptans''' (sulfhydryl compounds) in general inhibit AGE formation. Examples are: Glutathione, cysteine and co-enzyme-A.

* '''Glutathione'''; Acetylcysteine (inhibits CML formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12644946]) is derived from '''cysteine''', and is a precursor in the formation of glutathione. Cysteine (binds to aldehydes) and glutathione inhibit the Maillard reaction more so than citric acid and oxalic acid. Though citric acid and oxalic acid also inhibit formation of the intermediates 3-DG and HMF.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21535485] Reactive intermediates such as GO, MGO, PGO and 3-DG, however, inhibit glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, by irreversively modifying arginine residues in GPx.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12653209]

* '''Enzymes'''; Fructosyl amine oxidase enzymes have the ability to deglycate Amadori products (Maillard intermediates) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15629109], and the damage to tissue protein and nucleotides by alpha-oxoaldehydes is suppressed through inhibition of aldolase B, preventing accumulation of methylglyoxal (and subsequent AGE formation, incl. CEL).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22911800] and by the metabolism of alpha-oxoaldehydes by the glutathione-dependent enzyme glyoxalase I, aldo-keto reductases [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17590998] Including degradation of MGO (and 3-DG) by aldehyde reductase [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9538214] [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/biochemistry1922/123/2/123_2_353/_pdf Full Free Text], 3-DG reductase [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8787803] superoxide dismutase and catalase.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9022079] These enzymatic activities are part of the enzymatic defence against glycation.

* '''Dietary restriction''', by inhibiting glycoxidation rate[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8552666] reduces oxidative stress by AGEs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8126349] Caloric restriction reduces levels of CML and pentosidine in collagen[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7583789], but also negatively affects wound healing.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7814778] Greater levels of pyridoxamine 5'-phosphate (a precursor of pyridoxamine) were found in liver, kidney and heart of dietary restricted animals.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10204830]

* '''Vitamin B6''' (Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate; PLP); PLP and pyridoxal are the most effective lipid glycation inhibitors.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16470027][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20957396] Pyridoxamine, pyridoxine, pyridoxal and their 5'-phosphates are precursors for the active form of PLP or vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate). PLP is riboflavin-5′-phosphate dependent, derived from vitamin B2. (riboflavin-5′-phosphate inhibits mutagenicity of some [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA)#Mutagenic_HCA_in_cooked_foods HCA]). A lack of dietary B6 increases damage by lipid peroxidation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15219924] Vitamin B6 (in mg/100g) in raw foods: 0.96 (Souci et al) in sardine; 0.93 in yellowfin tuna; 0.85 in Skipjack tuna; 0.82 (Souci et al: 0.98) in wild Atlantic salmon (farmed: 0.60); 0.55 in wild Coho salmon (farmed: 0.66); 0.54 in walnuts (0.87 according to Souci et al); 0.53 in Hass avocado and beef tenderloin; 0.46 in bluefin tuna; 0.44 in King mackerel and chicken meat; 0.40 in wild Chinook salmon, Atlantic and Spanish mackerel; 0.37 in banana; 0.31 in hazelnuts; 0.30 in egg yolk; 0.29 in California avocado; 0.22 in grape juice and dutchcured herring; 0.17 in wild Sockeye salmon; 0.12 in mango; 0.10 in apple juice; 0.08 in Florida avocado; 0.05 in orange juice.[http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/list]

* '''Pyridoxamine''' acts on various pathways in the glycation process. It inhibits the formation of AGEs [http://www.jbc.org/content/272/9/5430.long Full Free Text] and the chemical modification of protein by ALEs during lipid peroxidation reactions.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10801874] Pyridoxamine chelates the metals crucial to the redox reaction.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11677237] Pyridoxamine traps and cleaves alpha-dicarbonyls (intermediates in glycoxidation and lipoxidation reactions).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12923193] It reacts with the carbonyl group in Amadori compounds and the strong stability of pyridoxamine complexes is the key in its post-Amadori inhibition action.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18434162] Pyridoxamine also traps reactive oxyen species (ROS)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15905958] In food, pyridoxamine is also present as pyridoxamine 5’-phosphate (PMP), which is converted to pyridoxamine by intestinal phosphatases. PMP (in nmol/g) in foods: 22.9 in dried small anchovy; 4.8 in chicken fillet; 4.2 in garlic; 2.6 in carrot; 1.0 in egg yolk. Pyridoxamine (in nmol/g) in foods: 2.3 in egg yolk; 2.2 in dried small anchovy, 2.0 in chicken fillet; 1.3 in carrot and 0.8 in garlic.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3319133] The raw meats (sashimi) of fatty seawater fishes contain a lot of PLP and/or PMP. Five portions of sushi with 20g of fatty seawater sashimi toppings would supply with vitamin B6 recommended by the Japanese RDA.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22133098]

* '''alpha-Lipoic acid''' inhibits AGEs formation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9022079] by inhibiting lipid peroxidation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16325165] alpha-Lipoic acid is endogenously derived from caprylic acid, which is endogenously synthesized and present in coconut oil (7.6%), palm kernel oil (4.8%) and sheep milk (0.12%). alpha-Lipoic acid acts with carnitine (from lysine and methionine), improving mitochondrial-supported bioenergetics and also improving general antioxidant status, attenuating any increase in oxidative stress with age.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16430943] alpha-Lipoic acid improves mitochondrial function [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9973329] and reverses all three indexes of oxidative stress (protein carbonyls, lipidoxidation, oxidation-induced changes in synaptosomal membrane proteins) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12603840]

* '''Carnitine''' in combination with alph-lipoic acid synergistically lower oxidative stress more than either compound alone.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11854487] Vitamin C is essential in the formation of carnitine from lysine or methionine. By far the highest levels of carnitine are found in red meat.

* '''Taurine''' (from cysteine, fish or meat) inhibits AGE formation by inhibiting lipid peroxidation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14500045] and reducing serum glucose (by increasing glucose utilization).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15196090]

* '''Phenols''' (in plant foods) may enhance or inhibit Maillard reaction product formation. Though green tea ameliorates plasma hydroperoxide levels, it enhances CML formation. In bovine serum albumin incubated with ribose, the natural phenol desgalactotigonin inhibits, whereas quercetin and acteoside enhance CML formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18079486] Phenolic compounds such as p-coumeric acid, caffeic acid, sinapic acid, and cinnamic acid may react with Maillard reaction intermediates, and the yielded compounds may inhibit oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19817410] Phenolic antioxidants may inhibit formation of [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10503890]

* '''Curcumin''' is a polyphenolic bioactive compound in turmeric. In fruit-flies, curcumin at 0.05% and 0.1% of diet increased mean lifespan by 6.2% to 25.8%, decreasing malondialdehyde levels, and increasing superoxide dismutase activity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22653297]

* '''Oleic acid'''; Supplementary oleic acid protects against endogenous lipid peroxidation by reducing the production of lipid peroxidation products and reducing oxidant stress induced injury.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2058691] Oleic acid in foods, as percentage of total fat: Hazelnuts 77%; Olive oil 72% (2% as free oleic acid); avocado 66%; rapeseed oil and Macadamia nuts 59%; sheabutter 45%; lard 41%, sesame oil 40%; beef 39%; egg yolks and palm oil 37%; cocoa butter 33%; Brazil nuts 32%; lamb 29%; maize oil 28%; chicken 27%; butter 25%; salmon 22%; sunflower oil and turkey 21%; soybean oil 20%; herring 19%; linseed oil 18%; tuna 17%; grapeseed oil and walnut oil 16%; walnuts 15%; palm kernel oil 14%; mackerel 13%; sardine 12%; coconut oil 7%.

* '''Oleanolic acid''' (in garlic) inhibits pentosidine and CML formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17658830]

* '''Capsaicin''' (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonemide), the major pungent in hot peppers (genus Capsicum) inhibits membrane lipid peroxidation (formation of malondialdehyde) and carbonyl formation in human red blood cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16557614]

* '''Ursolic acid''' (in apples (particularly the peel), prunes, basil, rosemary, lavender, oregano, thyme) inhibits CML formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17658830]

* '''Cholesterol''' increases rigidity of liposome membranes, making the membrane more resistant to radical attack.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21185813]

* '''Furan fatty acids''' are, after consumption, incorporated in human tissue, acting as scavengers of lipidoxidation products (LOO* and LO* radicals). Furan fatty acids are present in algae and fish.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17914157]

==Intermediates==
Maillard intermediates that react with protein, nucleotides or basic phospholipids may be carbohydrate- (or protein-) or lipid-derived. The resulting end-products are advanced glycation end-products (AGE) and advanced lipoxidation end-products (ALE) respectively. Intermediates such as Amadori compounds and deoxyosones, are formed at percentage levels during model reactions.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18079482] Amadori compounds are a family of derivatives of aminodeoxysugars. Sugars that react with amino acids may form Amadori compounds (N-substituted 1-amino-1-deoxyketoses), which are labile Maillard intermediates. Major Amadori compounds in dried fruits are '''fructosylglutamate''' (from glucose + glutamate) in dried tomatoes (about 1.5%) and '''fructosylproline''' (glucose + proline) in dried apricots (about 0.2%).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15623289] Sulphiting (eg of dried fruits) may actually accelerate formation of Maillard compounds.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1298649] Transition metals accelerate the formation of Amadori compounds.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8987858]

* '''Fructosamine''' (1-Amino-1-deoxy-D-fructose; from glucose and amines) is a key intermediate of the Maillard reaction, rendering a specific aroma, taste, and color formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20837201]

* '''Fructoselysine''' may yield several AGEs, including pentosidine and CML.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1904067]

* '''Xylulosylglycine''' from xylose and glycine.

* '''N-(1-deoxy-D-fructos-1-yl)glycine''' (DFG)

Degradation of Amadori products yields dicarbonyls.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7578127] Carbonyls are also generated by lipid peroxidation and by autoxidation of sugars. Specific carbonyls, such as alpha-oxoaldehydes including glyoxals (GO, MGO, PGO etc) and deoxyosones (1-DG, 3-DG, 3-DP etc) are potent Maillard intermediates. Such potent alpha-dicarbonyls may be aldehydic or ketonic.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16646000] Reactive intermediates such as deoxyosones, GO and MGO are readily formed at 100°C.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12065691] alpha-Oxoaldehydes may form heterocyclic compounds in reaction with (guanidine derivatives from) protein-bound arginine or creatine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8525706] alpha-Oxoaldehydes are up to 20,000-fold more reactive than glucose in glycation processes and react with proteins (predominantly arginine, while arginine residues are highly present in receptor and enzyme active sites), nucleotides and basic phospholipids to form AGE/ALEs (particularly hydroimidazolones, highly present in cellular and extracellular proteins).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037229]

* '''Glucosone''' (D-arabino-hexos-2-ulose) induces lipid peroxidation, involving metal ions.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1291643]

* '''2,3-butanedione''' is formed from glucose.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10552645]

* '''2,3-pentanedione''' may be formed from glucose, or from alanine plus D-glucose, pyruvaldehyde or glyceraldehyde.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10552645]

* '''3-deoxygalactosone''' (3-DGal) and '''galactosone''' are 1,2-dicarbonyls from the degradation of galactose, at high concentrations in milk products, commercial apple juice (from 3-DG) and beer.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20822095]

* '''3-deoxyglucosone''' (3-deoxy-D-erythro-hexos-2-ulose; 3-DG; a 2-oxoaldehyde from glucose-glutamic acid, or from fructose without amino groups[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2780681]) 3DG accelerates the advanced stage of the Maillard reaction.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2157564][http://www.clinchem.org/content/36/4/631.long Full Free Text] Its levels (and of Pyrraline) are increased in diabetes [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8051120] [http://www.jbc.org/content/269/32/20275.long Free Full Text] and uremic patients.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7777110] 3-DG may yield pyrraline, pentosidine, CML and imidazolones.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10491986] Human aldehyde reductase (ALR) is an enzyme in our blood that rapidly detoxifies 3-DG when it is formed through the Maillard reaction in the human body.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8500767] 3-DG is detoxified by reduction to 3-DF (3-deoxyfructose) and subsequently reduced to 3-deoxy-hexitols (3-DH).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1550339]

* '''1-deoxyglucosone''' (1-DG; 1-deoxy-D-erythro-hexo-2,3-diulose, an alpha-dicarbonyl) Its degradation mainly yields lactic acid and glyceric acid[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20441226], but may also yield acetic acid released as sugar fragment.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037223]

* '''3-deoxypentosone''' (3-DP)

* '''3-deoxy-2-hexosulose''' may react with phenolic compounds.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19817410]

* '''1-deoxyhexo-2,3-diulose''' (an alpha-dicarbonyl) Its degradation is a key intermediate in Maillard chemistry, yielding carboxylic acids (glyceric acid, acetic acid; stable Maillard end-products), as well as unstable, reactive Maillard intermediates such as dicarbonyls (3,4-dihydroxy-2-oxobutanal, 1-hydroxybutane-2,3-dione, and 4-hydroxy-2-oxobutanal) and hydroxycarbonyls (acetol).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19422225]

* '''Dideoxyosones''' may result from dicarbonyls reacting with amino acids. Lysine, for example, may yield N6-(2,3-dihydroxy-5,6-dioxohexyl)-L-lysine, N6-(5,6-dihydroxy-2,3-dioxohexyl)-L-lysine or N6-(2,3-dihydroxy-4,5-dioxohexyl)-L-lysine, which subsequently may yield quinoxalines.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15183735] Notably N6-(2,3-dihydroxy-5,6-dioxohexyl)-l-lysinate is formed from lysine, which is highly reactive. It may yield glucosepane.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12757388]

* '''Glyoxal''' (GO) is a lipid peroxidation product [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7959459] and forms on autoxidation of glucose, and may yield CML.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7893666]

* '''Methylglyoxal''' (MGO, or 2-oxopropanal or pyruvaldehyde) is a metabolite of glucose (aldehyde), but also a ketone (from lipidoxidation). MGO readily binds to free (or bound in proteins) arginine, lysine, and cysteine, leading to the formation of Maillard reaction end-products (AGEs and ALEs). MGO is associated with hypertension.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22333481] Acute hyperglycemia increases MGO levels 1.27-fold, and resulting CML levels by 21%.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23163122] Serum MGO levels are elevated in diabetes patients.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10373458] Several commercial beverages contain very high levels of MGO.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18448797] Ammonolysis of MGO may render formamide, which may react with 2-aminopropanal (from MGO) to give carcinogenic 4- or 5-methylimidazole.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21186780]

* '''Phenylglyoxal''' (PGO)

* '''5-hydroxy-3-mercapto-2-pentanone''' from thiamine, cysteine, and xylose.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18983164]

* '''Oxazolidin-5-one''' from phenylalanine and glycolaldehyde[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18992878]

* '''Acrolein''' is a lipidoxidation product and ALE intermediate; it may yield HNE[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10905545] and FDP-lysine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18587559]

* '''Malondialdehyde''' (MDA) is a lipidoxidation product and ALE intermediate. Its highly reactive and a marker for oxidative stress, as it is generated from reactive oxygen species (ROS) degrading polyunsaturated fats. Its present in heated edible oils such as sunflower and palm oils. As transition metals catalyze lipid peroxidation, increased levels of zinc correspond with malondialdehyde levels in carps.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12084620]

* '''4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal''' (4-HNE) is an ALE intermediate; the primary alpha,beta-unsaturated hydroxyalkenal formed during lipidoxidation of polyunsaturated fats. (others are: 4-oxo-trans-2-nonenal, 4-hydroxy-trans-2-hexenal, 4-hydroperoxy-trans-2-nonenal and 4,5-epoxy-trans-2-decenal).

While the concentration of glucose Amadori products is relatively constant with age, glycoxidation products (protein oxidized by glycation products) accumulate in long-lived proteins in human tissue.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1858426] Glycoxidation reactions proceed by multiple routes. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7578127]

==End-products==
The formation of AGEs/ALEs is linked to aging of tissues and organs in general and to several diseases such as diabetes mellitus and Alzheimer's disease[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16342332]; A diet that is low in AGEs may reduce the risk of type 2 [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Diabetes diabetes] by increasing insulin sensitivity.[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27030534] Good glycemic control limits damage due to AGEs/ALEs.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1904067] AGEs/ALEs are indicators of tissue aging.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14661090] Food-derived AGEs contribute to Alzheimer's Disease.[http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2014/02/19/1316013111] Some people argue that fluorescent AGEs (such as CML) may represent AGEs in general [http://www.biomed.cas.cz/physiolres/pdf/51/51_313.pdf], but fluorescent AGEs may only represent endogenously formed AGEs, formed at low temperatures, and not AGEs formed at much higher temperatures. Maillard end-products include [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines (HCAs)] (such as IQ, MeIQ, MeIQx etc[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1516842], [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Acrylamide acrylamides], [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Styrene styrene], [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Melanoidins melanoidins] and many other compounds.

* '''5-methylimidazoline-4-one''' (MG-H1; non-toxic), from arginine and methylglyoxal.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037228]

* '''4(5)-Methylimidazole''' is readily formed from ammonia and methylglyoxal. Its a carcinogenic found in commercial cola soft drinks; from 0.30 μg/mL to 0.36 μg/mL[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21186780]

* '''glyceraldehyde-derived pyridinium''' (GLAP; toxic) induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in HL-60 cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037228]

* '''Pyrraline''' (ε-2-(formyl-5-hydroxymethyl-pyrrol-1-yl)-L-norleucine) is an AGE formed from 3-deoxyglucosone in the non-enzymatic reaction between glucose and the epsilon-amino group of lysine residues on proteins.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7873594] Pyrraline is found predominantly in the sclerosed extracellular matrix of glomerular and arteriolar renal tissues from both diabetic and aged nondiabetic individuals.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1526333] Pyrraline and pentosidine are particularly present in plaques in brain tissue from patients with Alzheimer disease.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8202552]

* '''Pentosidine''' (an imidazo[4,5-b]pyridinium) is often used as a marker for AGE stress. It comprises lysine and arginine, cross-linked by a pentose (isomers of ribose, arabinose, xylose or lyxose, but also by vitamin C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1904866], Amadori compounds, 3-deoxyglucosone, and other sugars (pentoses as well as hexoses[http://www.jbc.org/content/266/18/11649.long Full Free Article]). Its formation is inhibited by aminoguanidine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1904867]). Pentosidine is found in plasma proteins and red blood cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2513322] Pentosidine level increases from 5 to 75 pmol/mg collagen over lifespan. A 3 to 10 fold increase was noted in subjects with severe end-stage renal disease requiring hemodialysis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2298912] Pentosidine levels correlate with uremia[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1813279][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1733803] and bone and joint disorders.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8185700] The amount of pentosidine per collagen in human articular cartilage increases linearly with age.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1664425]

* '''Glucosepane''' is a lysine-arginine protein cross-linking product derived from D-glucose, structurally related to pentosidine. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10428377] It is the most prevalent cross-linking AGE in human tissue.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16037276]

* '''Pent-4-en-1-amine''' Is considered the lysine-glucose counterpart of [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Acrylamide acrylamide] (instead of asparagine-glucose). In the presence of sugars, lysine, similarly to asparagine and phenylalanine, can undergo carbonyl-assisted decarboxylative deamination reaction to generate pent-4-en-1-amine. Alternatively, decarboxylation of lysine generates cadaverine (1,5-diaminopentane) followed by deamination to form pent-4-en-1-amine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20205470]

* '''Vesperlysines''' (AGEs)

* '''N(ε)-(carboxyethyl)lysine''' (CEL, an AGE/ALE); Incubation of bovine serum albumine with glucose yields methylglyoxal (a reactive glucose metabolite), which subsequently (in combination with lysine) yields CEL.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12668073] The latter is inhibited by arginine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22518022] (as arginine also readily reacts with methylglyoxal)

* '''N(ε)-(carboxymethyl)lysine''' (CML, an AGE/ALE); In rats, during the processes of aging, hippocampal microvessels and hippocampal pyramidal neurons accumulate AGES, particularly CML. Further conjugation of CML seems to occur in the microvessels and pyramidal neurons of hippocampus and it brings about deleterious change of endothelial cells and pyramidal neuron death, causing deficiency of recognition and reference memory in rodents during the processes of aging.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15036569] In rats fed a diet high in polyunsaturated fats, CML and CEL levels increased in the brain, remained unchanged in the kidney, and decreased in the liver.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14641074] CML is readily created from intermediates by heat treatment over 80°C.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12065691] CML may be formed through various pathways.[http://www.jbc.org/content/270/17/10017.long Full Free Article]

* '''N(ε)-(carboxymethyl)hydroxylysine''' (CMhL). Hydroxylysine (an amino acid) is unique to collagen. The level of CMhL (and that of CML) accumulate with age in long-lived proteins in human tissues [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1858426] and are biomarkers for oxidative stress.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2010041]

* '''N(ε)-(malondialdehyde)lysine''' (MDL, an ALE); in rats fed high levels of polyunsaturated fats, MDL levels increased in all tissues measured (liver, kidney, brain).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14641074]

* '''N(ε)-(3-formyl-3,4-dehydropiperidino)lysine''' (FDP-lysine, an ALE; acrolein derived)) may reflect the cumulative burden of oxidative stress over long periods of time[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18587559] and is a biomarker for diabetic retinopathy.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21151599]

* '''N(ε)-(4-hydroxy-2-nonenal)lysine''' (4H2NL, an ALE);

* '''4-hydroxynonenal-lysine'''; an ALE.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10801874]

* '''Acetamide''' Amides are derivates of ammonia or (carboxylated) amines. Acetamide is a carcinogenic derived from acetic acid, by dehydrating ammonium acetate[http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/orgsyn/prepContent.asp?prep=cv1p0003], or by hydrolysis of acetonitrile[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a01_045.pub2/abstract]. Thermal degradation (>200°C) of chitin also yields acetamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/494808] Chitin is a good inducer for defense mechanisms in plants[http://www.yeacrops.com/Crop%20Protection%20Article.pdf], and present in fungi, the exoskeletons of crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters and shrimps, in mollusks, and in the internal shells of squid and octopus. Acetamide is also a byproduct of thermochemical treatment of lignocellulosic biomass.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21444255]

* '''Chloropropanols''' 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) is a chloropropanol.

* '''Imidazolones''' are the reaction products of the guanidino group of arginine with 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9077536] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC507942/ Full Free Text]

* '''4-hydroxy-trans-2,3-nonenal''' (HNE) is cytotoxic. Its formation is increased as the result of elevated lipidperoxidation [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16162015], yielding acrolein.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10905545]

* '''2-ammonio-6-([2-[(4-ammonio-5-oxido-5-oxopentyl)amino]-4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-5-ylidene]amino)hexanoate''' (GODIC) is a cross-linking unit (lysine-arginine) in vivo and in foodstuffs, readily formed from GO or MGO.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10632059]

* '''2-ammonio-6-([2-[(4-ammonio-5-oxido-5-oxopentyl)amino]-4-methyl-4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-5-ylidene]amino)hexanoate''' (MODIC), is a cross-linking unit (lysine-arginine) in vivo and in foodstuffs, readily formed from GO or MGO.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10632059]

* (GOLD 3) imidazolium cross-linking unit
* (MOLD 4) imidazolium cross-linking unit

==Author==
[[Image:Instagram.jpg|thumb|left| ]]
[[Image:YouTube.jpg|thumb|right| ]]
Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966

* Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)

* Author's [https://www.instagram.com/topfitafter50/ Instagram account]

* Author's [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCLZULfm7l2dZFyDdhrROJKg YouTube Channel]

Cement-2022

2023-03-15T13:54:52Z

RRM:

[[Image:EcoSanGhana.jpg|thumb|left| ]]

For the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique we are making concrete blocks with the following ratio: 1 part cement + 3 parts aggregate + 3 parts sand.
Cement is regularly cheaper to buy in South Africa was a better deal to buy and subsequently collected in Mozambique. The price is in South African Rand. €5532

[http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting Back to the accounting page].

[[Image:Mozambique-cement-02-05-2022.jpg|thumb|left| ]]

File:Mozambique-cement-02-05-2022.jpg

2023-03-15T13:53:45Z

RRM:

Cement-25-01-2021

2023-03-15T13:52:33Z

RRM:

[[Image:EcoSanGhana.jpg|thumb|left| ]]

For the water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique we need to make concrete blocks to build a wall around the designated area. We are making concrete with the following ratio: 1 part cement + 3 parts aggregate + 3 parts sand.
The price is in Mozambique metical (at rate of 70 metrical per 1 Euro)

[http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting Back to the accounting page].

[[Image:Mozambique-cement-25-01-21.jpg|thumb|left| ]]

File:Mozambique-cement-25-01-21.jpg

2023-03-15T13:52:08Z

RRM:

Costs

2023-03-14T14:10:15Z

RRM: /* 2022 */

Accounted Costs Stichting Ecosan Ghana

.

'''"FloFlo"''' - The percussion drill tower used for drilling bore holes: initial costs €3500, owned by [http://www.thijsklompmaker.com Thijs Klompmaker] (and thus no cost, nor an asset)

.
==2016==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Casing pipes]"''' - From China, 100 meter pipes for lining the boreholes: €1172,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Standard waterpumps]"''' - From Belgium, for shallow wells. Costs for 5 pumps: €745,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Solar powered waterpumps]"''' - From China, for deep wells. Costs for 3 complete sets: €1218,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Import Casing Pipes]"''' - Import of casing pipes from China (in)to Ghana, Tema: €1155

.

Total costs 2016: [b]€4290[/b]

.

==2017==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Transport Cast Iron Waterpumps]"''' - Transport case iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Dunkwa-On_Offin - €60

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Pole Solar Pole]"''' - Solar pole for mounting the solar panel on, project Modaso: €208

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Polytank Polytank]"''' - Polytank for storing water, project Modaso: €358

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Import Solar Pumps]"''' - Costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps: €449

.

Total costs 2017: [b]€1075[/b]

.

==2018==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Pickup_truck Pick-up truck]"''' - Second-hand 2001 Nissan Frontier pick-up truck: €4.137,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso_composting_toilet Modaso composting toilet]"''' - Sand for the talud to build the toilet on: €430,-

.

Total costs 2018: [b]€4567[/b]

.

==2019==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement_Modaso Cement Modaso]"''' - Cement for the toilet foundation - project Modaso; 40 bags: [b]€2,333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Rebars_Abrobuasen Steel Sheets and Cement for Abrobuasen]"''' - Rebars, cement, etc for Abrobuasen toilet foundation: [b]€2,078[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Limestone_chippings Limestone chippings]"''' - Limestone chippings for making spirulina raceway concrete (Kwameprekrom); 40 metric tonnes: [b]€3,173[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-19-08-2019 Cement Kwameprekrom]"''' - Cement for making concrete for the water-purification raceway - project Kwameprekrom; 110 bags: [b]€6,416[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Circulation_pump Circulation waterpump]"''' - Circulation waterpump for keeping the water in motion - project Kwameprekrom. [b]€333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Sand_Kwameprekrom Sand for project Kwameprekrom]"''' - Sand for making concrete for the spirulina raceway in Kwameprekrom. [b]€500[/b]

.

Total costs 2019: [b]€14,833[/b]

.

==2020==
Due to COVID19, we have been unable to travel to Ghana to verify financial transactions, and we have therefore suspended buying new materials, and have been working with materials already bought previously. In Mozambique, we initiated a trial in Manhica, to build a spirulina raceway to purify sewage water.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-05-10-2020 Cement Manhica]"''' - Cement bought in South Africa for making concrete for the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique - project Manhica: [b]€597[/b]
.

.
==2021==
Due to COVID19, a lack of oversight led to a sharp decline in activities. We built a wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-25-01-2021 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement and sand for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€3450,-[/b]

.

==2022==
In 2022 we made concrete bricks for completing the wall at Santa Isabel.
wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-2022 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€5532,-[/b]

Cement-2022

2023-03-14T14:02:33Z

RRM:

Cement-2022

2023-03-14T13:57:26Z

RRM: Created page with " For the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique we need concrete. We are making concrete with the following ratio: 1 part ce..."

[[Image:EcoSanGhana.jpg|thumb|left| ]]

For the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique we need concrete. We are making concrete with the following ratio: 1 part cement + 3 parts aggregate + 3 parts sand.
Cement is regularly cheaper to buy in South Africa was a better deal to buy and subsequently collected in Mozambique. The price is in South African Rand (at rate 0.057 Euro)

[http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting Back to the accounting page].

[[Image:Mozambique-cement-2020-1b.jpg|thumb|left| ]]
[[Image:Mozambique-cement-2020-1b.jpg|thumb|right| ]]

Costs

2023-03-14T13:55:17Z

RRM: /* 2021 */

Accounted Costs Stichting Ecosan Ghana

.

'''"FloFlo"''' - The percussion drill tower used for drilling bore holes: initial costs €3500, owned by [http://www.thijsklompmaker.com Thijs Klompmaker] (and thus no cost, nor an asset)

.
==2016==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Casing pipes]"''' - From China, 100 meter pipes for lining the boreholes: €1172,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Standard waterpumps]"''' - From Belgium, for shallow wells. Costs for 5 pumps: €745,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Solar powered waterpumps]"''' - From China, for deep wells. Costs for 3 complete sets: €1218,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Import Casing Pipes]"''' - Import of casing pipes from China (in)to Ghana, Tema: €1155

.

Total costs 2016: [b]€4290[/b]

.

==2017==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Transport Cast Iron Waterpumps]"''' - Transport case iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Dunkwa-On_Offin - €60

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Pole Solar Pole]"''' - Solar pole for mounting the solar panel on, project Modaso: €208

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Polytank Polytank]"''' - Polytank for storing water, project Modaso: €358

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Import Solar Pumps]"''' - Costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps: €449

.

Total costs 2017: [b]€1075[/b]

.

==2018==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Pickup_truck Pick-up truck]"''' - Second-hand 2001 Nissan Frontier pick-up truck: €4.137,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso_composting_toilet Modaso composting toilet]"''' - Sand for the talud to build the toilet on: €430,-

.

Total costs 2018: [b]€4567[/b]

.

==2019==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement_Modaso Cement Modaso]"''' - Cement for the toilet foundation - project Modaso; 40 bags: [b]€2,333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Rebars_Abrobuasen Steel Sheets and Cement for Abrobuasen]"''' - Rebars, cement, etc for Abrobuasen toilet foundation: [b]€2,078[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Limestone_chippings Limestone chippings]"''' - Limestone chippings for making spirulina raceway concrete (Kwameprekrom); 40 metric tonnes: [b]€3,173[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-19-08-2019 Cement Kwameprekrom]"''' - Cement for making concrete for the water-purification raceway - project Kwameprekrom; 110 bags: [b]€6,416[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Circulation_pump Circulation waterpump]"''' - Circulation waterpump for keeping the water in motion - project Kwameprekrom. [b]€333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Sand_Kwameprekrom Sand for project Kwameprekrom]"''' - Sand for making concrete for the spirulina raceway in Kwameprekrom. [b]€500[/b]

.

Total costs 2019: [b]€14,833[/b]

.

==2020==
Due to COVID19, we have been unable to travel to Ghana to verify financial transactions, and we have therefore suspended buying new materials, and have been working with materials already bought previously. In Mozambique, we initiated a trial in Manhica, to build a spirulina raceway to purify sewage water.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-05-10-2020 Cement Manhica]"''' - Cement bought in South Africa for making concrete for the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique - project Manhica: [b]€597[/b]
.

.
==2021==
Due to COVID19, a lack of oversight led to a sharp decline in activities. We built a wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-25-01-2021 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement and sand for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€3450,-[/b]

.

==2022==
In 2022 we made concrete bricks for completing the wall at Santa Isabel.
wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-2022 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€1780,-[/b]

Costs

2023-03-14T13:54:55Z

RRM: /* 2021 */

Accounted Costs Stichting Ecosan Ghana

.

'''"FloFlo"''' - The percussion drill tower used for drilling bore holes: initial costs €3500, owned by [http://www.thijsklompmaker.com Thijs Klompmaker] (and thus no cost, nor an asset)

.
==2016==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Casing pipes]"''' - From China, 100 meter pipes for lining the boreholes: €1172,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Standard waterpumps]"''' - From Belgium, for shallow wells. Costs for 5 pumps: €745,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Solar powered waterpumps]"''' - From China, for deep wells. Costs for 3 complete sets: €1218,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Import Casing Pipes]"''' - Import of casing pipes from China (in)to Ghana, Tema: €1155

.

Total costs 2016: [b]€4290[/b]

.

==2017==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Transport Cast Iron Waterpumps]"''' - Transport case iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Dunkwa-On_Offin - €60

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Pole Solar Pole]"''' - Solar pole for mounting the solar panel on, project Modaso: €208

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Polytank Polytank]"''' - Polytank for storing water, project Modaso: €358

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Import Solar Pumps]"''' - Costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps: €449

.

Total costs 2017: [b]€1075[/b]

.

==2018==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Pickup_truck Pick-up truck]"''' - Second-hand 2001 Nissan Frontier pick-up truck: €4.137,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso_composting_toilet Modaso composting toilet]"''' - Sand for the talud to build the toilet on: €430,-

.

Total costs 2018: [b]€4567[/b]

.

==2019==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement_Modaso Cement Modaso]"''' - Cement for the toilet foundation - project Modaso; 40 bags: [b]€2,333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Rebars_Abrobuasen Steel Sheets and Cement for Abrobuasen]"''' - Rebars, cement, etc for Abrobuasen toilet foundation: [b]€2,078[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Limestone_chippings Limestone chippings]"''' - Limestone chippings for making spirulina raceway concrete (Kwameprekrom); 40 metric tonnes: [b]€3,173[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-19-08-2019 Cement Kwameprekrom]"''' - Cement for making concrete for the water-purification raceway - project Kwameprekrom; 110 bags: [b]€6,416[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Circulation_pump Circulation waterpump]"''' - Circulation waterpump for keeping the water in motion - project Kwameprekrom. [b]€333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Sand_Kwameprekrom Sand for project Kwameprekrom]"''' - Sand for making concrete for the spirulina raceway in Kwameprekrom. [b]€500[/b]

.

Total costs 2019: [b]€14,833[/b]

.

==2020==
Due to COVID19, we have been unable to travel to Ghana to verify financial transactions, and we have therefore suspended buying new materials, and have been working with materials already bought previously. In Mozambique, we initiated a trial in Manhica, to build a spirulina raceway to purify sewage water.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-05-10-2020 Cement Manhica]"''' - Cement bought in South Africa for making concrete for the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique - project Manhica: [b]€597[/b]
.

.
==2021==
Due to COVID19, a lack of oversight led to a sharp decline in activities. We built a wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-25-01-2021 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement and sand for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€3450,-[/b]

==2022==
In 2022 we made concrete bricks for completing the wall at Santa Isabel.
wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-2022 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€1780,-[/b]

Cement-05-10-2020

2023-03-14T12:13:22Z

RRM:

EcoSan board

2023-03-07T12:53:01Z

RRM:

[[Image:Signing-Hamstra.jpg|thumb|left| Hamstra signing at the [https://www.firm24.com/ Firm24] office]]
[[Image:Legislative-Act-Dutch-1.jpg|thumb|right| Legislative Act - in Dutch (page 1)]]
[[Image:Signing-Bannink.jpg|thumb|left| Bannink signing at the [https://www.firm24.com/ Firm24] office]]
[[Image:Legislative-Act-Dutch-2.jpg|thumb|right| Legislative Act - in Dutch (page 2)]]
[[Image:Signing-Klompmaker.jpg|thumb|left| Klompmaker signing at the [https://www.firm24.com/ Firm24] office]]
[[Image:Legislative-Act-Dutch-3.jpg|thumb|right| Legislative Act - in Dutch (page 3)]]
[[Image:Kvk.jpg|thumb|left| Excerpt Chamber of Commerce - in Dutch]]
[[Image:Legislative-Act-Dutch-4.jpg|thumb|right| Legislative Act - in Dutch (page 4)]]
[[Image:Taxes.jpg|thumb|left| Letter of exemption from the tax authorities]]
[[Image:Legislative-Act-Dutch-5.jpg|thumb|right| Legislative Act - in Dutch (page 5)]]
[[Image:Legislative-Act-Dutch-6.jpg|thumb|right| Legislative Act - in Dutch (page 6)]]

The [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=EcoSan_Ghana EcoSan Ghana] board of direction, signing for the legislative act, on the left:

'''Elsbeth Hamstra''' - Chairwoman ([https://www.facebook.com/elsbeth.hamstra?fref=ts on FaceBook])

'''Felis Cabral''' - Vice-chairman

'''Oscar Bannink''' - Secretary ([https://www.facebook.com/oscar.bannink?fref=ts on FaceBook])

'''Thijs Klompmaker''' - Treasurer ([http://www.thijsklompmaker.com/ website]; mobile: 0031641421334)

'''Berto Cabral'''

.

email: info@EcoSanGhana.org

==Legislative Act==
The [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Legislative_Act.pdf Legislative Act] (in Dutch) is displayed on the right, page 1 to 6.

.

==Chamber of Commerce==
A Chamber of Commerce excerpt (in Dutch) is displayed on the left ([http://www.waiwiki.org/images/Kvk.jpg KvK number: 67433316])

.

==Taxes==
EcoSan Ghana is exempted by the tax authorities from paying taxes (VAT, wages, corporate taxes) in The Netherlands; "[http://www.waiwiki.org/images/Taxes.jpg RSIN #856987682]" (in Dutch; on the bottom left).

.

Beleidsplan

2023-03-02T15:40:10Z

RRM: /* Stichting Ecosan Ghana */

Beleidsplan

2023-03-02T15:29:05Z

RRM: /* Stichting Ecosan Ghana */

==Stichting Ecosan Ghana==

het werk wat de instelling doet
- de manier waarop de stichting geld werft
- de manier waarop de stichting het geld beheerd
- en de manier waarop het geld wordt uitgegeven

.

==Beleidsplan 2017==

Het doel van de stichting ([http://www.ecosanghana.org/Kvk.pdf KvK #7433316]; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Taxes.JPG RSIN #856987682]) is het bouwen van composterende toiletten en waterputten op het platteland in Ghana om daar de watervoorziening te verbeteren.

We zijn in 2016 reeds begonnen met het slaan van waterputten in twee dorpjes nabij Dunkwa-On-Offin: [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tekyekrom Tekyekrom] en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso Modaso]. Ter voltooing van de waterputten hebben we in 2016 ook [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes pijpen] (voor het in stand houden van de putten) en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump op zonne-energie werkende waterpompen] besteld. De bedoeling is dat in de laatste week van januari 2017 beginnen met het installeren van de pijpen. Daarna is het wachten op de aankomst van de pompen. Hopelijk kunnen we die in maart 2017 gaan installeren. Daarna, in april of mei 2017, zullen we van start gaan met de bouw van een [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet composterend toilet] in Modaso, achter dezelfde school waar we reeds aan de voorzijde een waterput geslagen hebben. Hopelijk kunnen we dat in 2017 afronden.

[b]Het Geld[/b]

Tot nu toe is de voor-financiering van de lopende projecten gedaan met geld uit onze eigen zakken. Middels het voorleggen van succesvolle projecten aan bedrijven hopen we ook enkele bedrijven zo ver krijgen om een steentje bij te dragen.

De kosten voor het slaan van waterputten hangen samen met hoe diep het grondwater zit. De kosten van de pijpen zijn sterk afhankelijk van de diepte van de put; ongeveer 56 tot 140 euro per put. De pompen zijn nog niet geimporteerd, maar we schatten dat uiteindelijk de totale kosten op ongeveer 1000 euro per pomp uit zullen komen. Daarnaast is er nog een polytank nodig, a 400 euro. De kostenopbouw wordt [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting uitgesplitst en toegelicht].

De bestuurders krijgen geen salaris. Ook krijgen de bestuurders geen enkele onkostenvergoeding. De lokale manager (Nicholas Ofori-Atta) krijgt ook geen salaris of onkostenvergoeding. Alleen aan het bouwen van de waterputten en toiletten zelf wordt geld uitgegeven. (aanschaf, import, vervoer, materiaalkosten)

[b]Locaties[/b]

Toestemming krijgen voor het bouwen van toiletten is een heel gedoe in Ghana, daar er allerlei belangen en posities meespelen. We beginnen derhalve in gebieden waar we welwillende contacten opgebouwd hebben. Voor ons tot nu toe het meest toegankelijk is het distrikt Upper Denkyira East (met Modaso en Tekyekrom), gevolgd door de distrikten Atiwa en Fanteakwa.

.

==Beleidsplan 2018==

In Modaso zijn we er in geslaagd om een waterpomp te installeren. In Tekyekrom is dit niet gelukt; de plaatselijke koningin had besloten het ter beschikking gestelde land toch te verkopen, en weigerde ander land ter beschikking te stellen. We trekken ons derhalve terug uit Tekyekrom. In 2017 zijn we er pas aan het eind van het jaar in geslaagd om een vergunnning te krijgen voor het bouwen van een composterend toilet in Modaso. Met de bouw daarvan gaan we in 2018 van start, en hopelijk kunnen we dit in 2018 ook afronden.

[b]Geld[/b]

In 2017 hebben we een donatie ontvangen van 7025 euro, waarmee we het grootste gedeelte van de kosten kunnen dekken. De rest wordt vooralsnog uit eigen zak voorgeschoten. De kosten per pomp bleken uiteindelijk 556 euro te bedragen.

.

==Beleidsplan 2019==

In Modaso hadden we de garantie nodig dat de grond waar wij op bouwen niet opgeeist kan worden voor andere doeleinden. Pas eind 2018 waren die papieren door het hooggerecht opgesteld. Nu wachten we nog op de benodigde handtekeningen. Ons is beloofd dat dit in de eerste maanden van 2019 afgerond zal worden. Het fundament voor het composterende toilet is inmiddels klaar. Voortzetting van de bouw zal beginnen nadat ook die papieren compleet zijn. In 2018 hebben we donaties ontvangen ter waarde van 2000 en 4344 euro. In 2019 gaan we dat geld gebruiken om de pickup truck af te betalen en om cement en grind te kopen voor het beton.

[b]Geld[/b]

Enkele grote [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate donaties] zijn afkomstig van bedrijven, en een reeks kleinere donaties van particulieren. Bestuurslid Thijs Klompmaker doneert maandelijks een contractueel vastgelegd vast bedrag. Overheadkosten worden door de 3 bestuursleden gedoneerd. Boekhouderskantoor Van Hall Zes uit Amsterdam heeft de boekhouding van 2016 en 2017 voor ons verzorgd zonder hiervoor kosten in rekening te brengen. Robert Hoogendoorn heeft als vrijwilliger de jaarrekening van 2018 voorbereid.

.

==Beleidsplan 2020==

De papieren voor Modaso zijn (eind 2019...) eindelijk gereed, en we kunnen nu met de bovengrondse bouw verder. Om niet teveel tijd te verliezen waren we in 2019 al vast begonnen met de fundamenten voor toiletten op 2 nieuwe, nabije lokaties: Kwameprekrom en Abrobuasen. Hopelijk kunnen we ook deze toiletten in 2020 afbouwen. In Kwameprekrom is het grondwater besmet gebleken met fecale bacterien, wat de hoge lokale kindersterfte kan verklaren. Als oplossing hiervoor hadden wij besloten tot de bouw van een spirulina raceway, waarin het opgepompte water gezuiverd kan worden door spirulina. Dit laatste project is reeds in een vergevorderd stadium, en we zullen dit in 2020 zeker af kunnen ronden.

.

==Beleidsplan 2021==

Na het voltooien van de spirulina raceway als waterzuiveringsinstallatie bleek dat het systeem goed werkt. Het systeem zuivert niet alleen, maar werkt ook preventief. Een deel van de menselijke ontlasting en kippenmest in [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Kwameprekrom Kwameprekrom] vervuild nu niet langer het grondwater, en dient nu in plaats daarvan als voedingsbron voor de groei van spirulina, dat gebruikt wordt als visvoer door de plaatselijke viskweker. Wij zijn nu door vertegenwoordigers van diverse dorpjes gevraagd om ook daar een waterzuiveringsinstallatie te komen bouwen. Ook is er belangstelling vanuit Mozambique en Tanzania. Een team van vijf vrijwilligers uit [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Manhica Manhica, Mozambique] heeft zich reeds aangemeld om de benodigde arbeid te verrichten.

.

==Beleidsplan 2022==

Middels een reeks van grondwatertesten zijn er achter gekomen dat de vervuiling van grondwater in Ghana weider verbrijd is dan voorheen aangenomen. Dit is wellicht toe te schrijven aan een nieuw type van opvang van het afvalwater. Voorheen werd er bij de bouw van een stenen huis ook een rioolput aangelegd; de zogenaamde "manhole", bestaande uit een betonnen kelderput die regelmatig geleegd moest worden. Tegenwoordig wordt hierop bezuinigd door een zogeheten "degrading" systeem te gebruiken. Hierbij wordt er alleen een gat gegraven waarbij een laag houtskool voor de 'ontsmetting' moet zorgen en het afvalwater daarna in de grond weg lekt. Het is goed mogelijk dat dit tot een hogere graad voor grondwater besmetting leidt. Hiermee rekening houdende, moeten we onze aandacht wellicht meer richten op het voorzien van water voor de landbouw dan als drinkwater. We gaan dit jaar op zoek naar droge landbouwgebieden met een grote vraag naar water voor de gewassen. In Mozambique gaan we vooral bezig zijn met het voorbereiden van land voor het reinigen van 'manhole water'.

.

==Beleidsplan 2023==

In de kustregio van Ghana in de regio van Cape Coast zijn in de buurt van het dorpje Mankesim heuvelachtige landbouwgebieden die erg droog zijn, maar waar toch naar grondwater te boren moet kunnen zijn, vanwege de nabijheid van de zee. Op een eerste boorlocatie hebben we daar op een diepte van 110 meter uiteindelijk water gevonden. Vanwege de diepte moeten we echter wel iets meer uitgeven aan zonnepanelen om dit water te kunnen 'oogsten'.

In tegenstelling tot Ghana, zijn 'biodegrading' systemen minder in zwang dan de betonnen 'manholes', waardoor er nog steeds een groot overschot is aan te zuiveren afvalwater.
In Mozambique zijn we door Corona behoorlijk achter op schema geraakt, maar gaan we in 2023 verder met de aanleg van waterzuiveringsinstallaties (waarbij Spirulina het water zuivert) in Santa Isabel, Manhica en Nampula.

Beleidsplan

2023-03-02T15:28:45Z

RRM: /* Stichting EcoSan Ghana Beleidsplan 2017 */

==Stichting Ecosan Ghana==

het werk wat de instelling doet
- de manier waarop de stichting geld werft
- de manier waarop de stichting het geld beheerd
- en de manier waarop het geld wordt uitgegeven

==Beleidsplan 2017==

Het doel van de stichting ([http://www.ecosanghana.org/Kvk.pdf KvK #7433316]; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Taxes.JPG RSIN #856987682]) is het bouwen van composterende toiletten en waterputten op het platteland in Ghana om daar de watervoorziening te verbeteren.

We zijn in 2016 reeds begonnen met het slaan van waterputten in twee dorpjes nabij Dunkwa-On-Offin: [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tekyekrom Tekyekrom] en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso Modaso]. Ter voltooing van de waterputten hebben we in 2016 ook [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes pijpen] (voor het in stand houden van de putten) en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump op zonne-energie werkende waterpompen] besteld. De bedoeling is dat in de laatste week van januari 2017 beginnen met het installeren van de pijpen. Daarna is het wachten op de aankomst van de pompen. Hopelijk kunnen we die in maart 2017 gaan installeren. Daarna, in april of mei 2017, zullen we van start gaan met de bouw van een [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet composterend toilet] in Modaso, achter dezelfde school waar we reeds aan de voorzijde een waterput geslagen hebben. Hopelijk kunnen we dat in 2017 afronden.

[b]Het Geld[/b]

Tot nu toe is de voor-financiering van de lopende projecten gedaan met geld uit onze eigen zakken. Middels het voorleggen van succesvolle projecten aan bedrijven hopen we ook enkele bedrijven zo ver krijgen om een steentje bij te dragen.

De kosten voor het slaan van waterputten hangen samen met hoe diep het grondwater zit. De kosten van de pijpen zijn sterk afhankelijk van de diepte van de put; ongeveer 56 tot 140 euro per put. De pompen zijn nog niet geimporteerd, maar we schatten dat uiteindelijk de totale kosten op ongeveer 1000 euro per pomp uit zullen komen. Daarnaast is er nog een polytank nodig, a 400 euro. De kostenopbouw wordt [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting uitgesplitst en toegelicht].

De bestuurders krijgen geen salaris. Ook krijgen de bestuurders geen enkele onkostenvergoeding. De lokale manager (Nicholas Ofori-Atta) krijgt ook geen salaris of onkostenvergoeding. Alleen aan het bouwen van de waterputten en toiletten zelf wordt geld uitgegeven. (aanschaf, import, vervoer, materiaalkosten)

[b]Locaties[/b]

Toestemming krijgen voor het bouwen van toiletten is een heel gedoe in Ghana, daar er allerlei belangen en posities meespelen. We beginnen derhalve in gebieden waar we welwillende contacten opgebouwd hebben. Voor ons tot nu toe het meest toegankelijk is het distrikt Upper Denkyira East (met Modaso en Tekyekrom), gevolgd door de distrikten Atiwa en Fanteakwa.

.

==Beleidsplan 2018==

In Modaso zijn we er in geslaagd om een waterpomp te installeren. In Tekyekrom is dit niet gelukt; de plaatselijke koningin had besloten het ter beschikking gestelde land toch te verkopen, en weigerde ander land ter beschikking te stellen. We trekken ons derhalve terug uit Tekyekrom. In 2017 zijn we er pas aan het eind van het jaar in geslaagd om een vergunnning te krijgen voor het bouwen van een composterend toilet in Modaso. Met de bouw daarvan gaan we in 2018 van start, en hopelijk kunnen we dit in 2018 ook afronden.

[b]Geld[/b]

In 2017 hebben we een donatie ontvangen van 7025 euro, waarmee we het grootste gedeelte van de kosten kunnen dekken. De rest wordt vooralsnog uit eigen zak voorgeschoten. De kosten per pomp bleken uiteindelijk 556 euro te bedragen.

.

==Beleidsplan 2019==

In Modaso hadden we de garantie nodig dat de grond waar wij op bouwen niet opgeeist kan worden voor andere doeleinden. Pas eind 2018 waren die papieren door het hooggerecht opgesteld. Nu wachten we nog op de benodigde handtekeningen. Ons is beloofd dat dit in de eerste maanden van 2019 afgerond zal worden. Het fundament voor het composterende toilet is inmiddels klaar. Voortzetting van de bouw zal beginnen nadat ook die papieren compleet zijn. In 2018 hebben we donaties ontvangen ter waarde van 2000 en 4344 euro. In 2019 gaan we dat geld gebruiken om de pickup truck af te betalen en om cement en grind te kopen voor het beton.

[b]Geld[/b]

Enkele grote [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate donaties] zijn afkomstig van bedrijven, en een reeks kleinere donaties van particulieren. Bestuurslid Thijs Klompmaker doneert maandelijks een contractueel vastgelegd vast bedrag. Overheadkosten worden door de 3 bestuursleden gedoneerd. Boekhouderskantoor Van Hall Zes uit Amsterdam heeft de boekhouding van 2016 en 2017 voor ons verzorgd zonder hiervoor kosten in rekening te brengen. Robert Hoogendoorn heeft als vrijwilliger de jaarrekening van 2018 voorbereid.

.

==Beleidsplan 2020==

De papieren voor Modaso zijn (eind 2019...) eindelijk gereed, en we kunnen nu met de bovengrondse bouw verder. Om niet teveel tijd te verliezen waren we in 2019 al vast begonnen met de fundamenten voor toiletten op 2 nieuwe, nabije lokaties: Kwameprekrom en Abrobuasen. Hopelijk kunnen we ook deze toiletten in 2020 afbouwen. In Kwameprekrom is het grondwater besmet gebleken met fecale bacterien, wat de hoge lokale kindersterfte kan verklaren. Als oplossing hiervoor hadden wij besloten tot de bouw van een spirulina raceway, waarin het opgepompte water gezuiverd kan worden door spirulina. Dit laatste project is reeds in een vergevorderd stadium, en we zullen dit in 2020 zeker af kunnen ronden.

.

==Beleidsplan 2021==

Na het voltooien van de spirulina raceway als waterzuiveringsinstallatie bleek dat het systeem goed werkt. Het systeem zuivert niet alleen, maar werkt ook preventief. Een deel van de menselijke ontlasting en kippenmest in [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Kwameprekrom Kwameprekrom] vervuild nu niet langer het grondwater, en dient nu in plaats daarvan als voedingsbron voor de groei van spirulina, dat gebruikt wordt als visvoer door de plaatselijke viskweker. Wij zijn nu door vertegenwoordigers van diverse dorpjes gevraagd om ook daar een waterzuiveringsinstallatie te komen bouwen. Ook is er belangstelling vanuit Mozambique en Tanzania. Een team van vijf vrijwilligers uit [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Manhica Manhica, Mozambique] heeft zich reeds aangemeld om de benodigde arbeid te verrichten.

.

==Beleidsplan 2022==

Middels een reeks van grondwatertesten zijn er achter gekomen dat de vervuiling van grondwater in Ghana weider verbrijd is dan voorheen aangenomen. Dit is wellicht toe te schrijven aan een nieuw type van opvang van het afvalwater. Voorheen werd er bij de bouw van een stenen huis ook een rioolput aangelegd; de zogenaamde "manhole", bestaande uit een betonnen kelderput die regelmatig geleegd moest worden. Tegenwoordig wordt hierop bezuinigd door een zogeheten "degrading" systeem te gebruiken. Hierbij wordt er alleen een gat gegraven waarbij een laag houtskool voor de 'ontsmetting' moet zorgen en het afvalwater daarna in de grond weg lekt. Het is goed mogelijk dat dit tot een hogere graad voor grondwater besmetting leidt. Hiermee rekening houdende, moeten we onze aandacht wellicht meer richten op het voorzien van water voor de landbouw dan als drinkwater. We gaan dit jaar op zoek naar droge landbouwgebieden met een grote vraag naar water voor de gewassen. In Mozambique gaan we vooral bezig zijn met het voorbereiden van land voor het reinigen van 'manhole water'.

.

==Beleidsplan 2023==

In de kustregio van Ghana in de regio van Cape Coast zijn in de buurt van het dorpje Mankesim heuvelachtige landbouwgebieden die erg droog zijn, maar waar toch naar grondwater te boren moet kunnen zijn, vanwege de nabijheid van de zee. Op een eerste boorlocatie hebben we daar op een diepte van 110 meter uiteindelijk water gevonden. Vanwege de diepte moeten we echter wel iets meer uitgeven aan zonnepanelen om dit water te kunnen 'oogsten'.

In tegenstelling tot Ghana, zijn 'biodegrading' systemen minder in zwang dan de betonnen 'manholes', waardoor er nog steeds een groot overschot is aan te zuiveren afvalwater.
In Mozambique zijn we door Corona behoorlijk achter op schema geraakt, maar gaan we in 2023 verder met de aanleg van waterzuiveringsinstallaties (waarbij Spirulina het water zuivert) in Santa Isabel, Manhica en Nampula.

Beleidsplan

2023-02-21T20:59:57Z

RRM: /* Beleidsplan 2023 */

==Stichting EcoSan Ghana Beleidsplan 2017==

Het doel van de stichting ([http://www.ecosanghana.org/Kvk.pdf KvK #7433316]; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Taxes.JPG RSIN #856987682]) is het bouwen van composterende toiletten en waterputten op het platteland in Ghana om daar de watervoorziening te verbeteren.

We zijn in 2016 reeds begonnen met het slaan van waterputten in twee dorpjes nabij Dunkwa-On-Offin: [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tekyekrom Tekyekrom] en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso Modaso]. Ter voltooing van de waterputten hebben we in 2016 ook [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes pijpen] (voor het in stand houden van de putten) en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump op zonne-energie werkende waterpompen] besteld. De bedoeling is dat in de laatste week van januari 2017 beginnen met het installeren van de pijpen. Daarna is het wachten op de aankomst van de pompen. Hopelijk kunnen we die in maart 2017 gaan installeren. Daarna, in april of mei 2017, zullen we van start gaan met de bouw van een [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet composterend toilet] in Modaso, achter dezelfde school waar we reeds aan de voorzijde een waterput geslagen hebben. Hopelijk kunnen we dat in 2017 afronden.

[b]Het Geld[/b]

Tot nu toe is de voor-financiering van de lopende projecten gedaan met geld uit onze eigen zakken. Middels het voorleggen van succesvolle projecten aan bedrijven hopen we ook enkele bedrijven zo ver krijgen om een steentje bij te dragen.

De kosten voor het slaan van waterputten hangen samen met hoe diep het grondwater zit. De kosten van de pijpen zijn sterk afhankelijk van de diepte van de put; ongeveer 56 tot 140 euro per put. De pompen zijn nog niet geimporteerd, maar we schatten dat uiteindelijk de totale kosten op ongeveer 1000 euro per pomp uit zullen komen. Daarnaast is er nog een polytank nodig, a 400 euro. De kostenopbouw wordt [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting uitgesplitst en toegelicht].

De bestuurders krijgen geen salaris. Ook krijgen de bestuurders geen enkele onkostenvergoeding. De lokale manager (Nicholas Ofori-Atta) krijgt ook geen salaris of onkostenvergoeding. Alleen aan het bouwen van de waterputten en toiletten zelf wordt geld uitgegeven. (aanschaf, import, vervoer, materiaalkosten)

[b]Locaties[/b]

Toestemming krijgen voor het bouwen van toiletten is een heel gedoe in Ghana, daar er allerlei belangen en posities meespelen. We beginnen derhalve in gebieden waar we welwillende contacten opgebouwd hebben. Voor ons tot nu toe het meest toegankelijk is het distrikt Upper Denkyira East (met Modaso en Tekyekrom), gevolgd door de distrikten Atiwa en Fanteakwa.

.

==Beleidsplan 2018==

In Modaso zijn we er in geslaagd om een waterpomp te installeren. In Tekyekrom is dit niet gelukt; de plaatselijke koningin had besloten het ter beschikking gestelde land toch te verkopen, en weigerde ander land ter beschikking te stellen. We trekken ons derhalve terug uit Tekyekrom. In 2017 zijn we er pas aan het eind van het jaar in geslaagd om een vergunnning te krijgen voor het bouwen van een composterend toilet in Modaso. Met de bouw daarvan gaan we in 2018 van start, en hopelijk kunnen we dit in 2018 ook afronden.

[b]Geld[/b]

In 2017 hebben we een donatie ontvangen van 7025 euro, waarmee we het grootste gedeelte van de kosten kunnen dekken. De rest wordt vooralsnog uit eigen zak voorgeschoten. De kosten per pomp bleken uiteindelijk 556 euro te bedragen.

.

==Beleidsplan 2019==

In Modaso hadden we de garantie nodig dat de grond waar wij op bouwen niet opgeeist kan worden voor andere doeleinden. Pas eind 2018 waren die papieren door het hooggerecht opgesteld. Nu wachten we nog op de benodigde handtekeningen. Ons is beloofd dat dit in de eerste maanden van 2019 afgerond zal worden. Het fundament voor het composterende toilet is inmiddels klaar. Voortzetting van de bouw zal beginnen nadat ook die papieren compleet zijn. In 2018 hebben we donaties ontvangen ter waarde van 2000 en 4344 euro. In 2019 gaan we dat geld gebruiken om de pickup truck af te betalen en om cement en grind te kopen voor het beton.

[b]Geld[/b]

Enkele grote [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate donaties] zijn afkomstig van bedrijven, en een reeks kleinere donaties van particulieren. Bestuurslid Thijs Klompmaker doneert maandelijks een contractueel vastgelegd vast bedrag. Overheadkosten worden door de 3 bestuursleden gedoneerd. Boekhouderskantoor Van Hall Zes uit Amsterdam heeft de boekhouding van 2016 en 2017 voor ons verzorgd zonder hiervoor kosten in rekening te brengen. Robert Hoogendoorn heeft als vrijwilliger de jaarrekening van 2018 voorbereid.

.

==Beleidsplan 2020==

De papieren voor Modaso zijn (eind 2019...) eindelijk gereed, en we kunnen nu met de bovengrondse bouw verder. Om niet teveel tijd te verliezen waren we in 2019 al vast begonnen met de fundamenten voor toiletten op 2 nieuwe, nabije lokaties: Kwameprekrom en Abrobuasen. Hopelijk kunnen we ook deze toiletten in 2020 afbouwen. In Kwameprekrom is het grondwater besmet gebleken met fecale bacterien, wat de hoge lokale kindersterfte kan verklaren. Als oplossing hiervoor hadden wij besloten tot de bouw van een spirulina raceway, waarin het opgepompte water gezuiverd kan worden door spirulina. Dit laatste project is reeds in een vergevorderd stadium, en we zullen dit in 2020 zeker af kunnen ronden.

.

==Beleidsplan 2021==

Na het voltooien van de spirulina raceway als waterzuiveringsinstallatie bleek dat het systeem goed werkt. Het systeem zuivert niet alleen, maar werkt ook preventief. Een deel van de menselijke ontlasting en kippenmest in [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Kwameprekrom Kwameprekrom] vervuild nu niet langer het grondwater, en dient nu in plaats daarvan als voedingsbron voor de groei van spirulina, dat gebruikt wordt als visvoer door de plaatselijke viskweker. Wij zijn nu door vertegenwoordigers van diverse dorpjes gevraagd om ook daar een waterzuiveringsinstallatie te komen bouwen. Ook is er belangstelling vanuit Mozambique en Tanzania. Een team van vijf vrijwilligers uit [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Manhica Manhica, Mozambique] heeft zich reeds aangemeld om de benodigde arbeid te verrichten.

.

==Beleidsplan 2022==

Middels een reeks van grondwatertesten zijn er achter gekomen dat de vervuiling van grondwater in Ghana weider verbrijd is dan voorheen aangenomen. Dit is wellicht toe te schrijven aan een nieuw type van opvang van het afvalwater. Voorheen werd er bij de bouw van een stenen huis ook een rioolput aangelegd; de zogenaamde "manhole", bestaande uit een betonnen kelderput die regelmatig geleegd moest worden. Tegenwoordig wordt hierop bezuinigd door een zogeheten "degrading" systeem te gebruiken. Hierbij wordt er alleen een gat gegraven waarbij een laag houtskool voor de 'ontsmetting' moet zorgen en het afvalwater daarna in de grond weg lekt. Het is goed mogelijk dat dit tot een hogere graad voor grondwater besmetting leidt. Hiermee rekening houdende, moeten we onze aandacht wellicht meer richten op het voorzien van water voor de landbouw dan als drinkwater. We gaan dit jaar op zoek naar droge landbouwgebieden met een grote vraag naar water voor de gewassen. In Mozambique gaan we vooral bezig zijn met het voorbereiden van land voor het reinigen van 'manhole water'.

.

==Beleidsplan 2023==

In de kustregio van Ghana in de regio van Cape Coast zijn in de buurt van het dorpje Mankesim heuvelachtige landbouwgebieden die erg droog zijn, maar waar toch naar grondwater te boren moet kunnen zijn, vanwege de nabijheid van de zee. Op een eerste boorlocatie hebben we daar op een diepte van 110 meter uiteindelijk water gevonden. Vanwege de diepte moeten we echter wel iets meer uitgeven aan zonnepanelen om dit water te kunnen 'oogsten'.

In tegenstelling tot Ghana, zijn 'biodegrading' systemen minder in zwang dan de betonnen 'manholes', waardoor er nog steeds een groot overschot is aan te zuiveren afvalwater.
In Mozambique zijn we door Corona behoorlijk achter op schema geraakt, maar gaan we in 2023 verder met de aanleg van waterzuiveringsinstallaties (waarbij Spirulina het water zuivert) in Santa Isabel, Manhica en Nampula.

Beleidsplan

2023-02-21T20:45:29Z

RRM: /* Beleidsplan 2022 */

Beleidsplan

2023-02-21T20:30:15Z

RRM: /* Beleidsplan 2021 */

==Stichting EcoSan Ghana Beleidsplan 2017==

Het doel van de stichting ([http://www.ecosanghana.org/Kvk.pdf KvK #7433316]; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Taxes.JPG RSIN #856987682]) is het bouwen van composterende toiletten en waterputten op het platteland in Ghana om daar de watervoorziening te verbeteren.

We zijn in 2016 reeds begonnen met het slaan van waterputten in twee dorpjes nabij Dunkwa-On-Offin: [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tekyekrom Tekyekrom] en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso Modaso]. Ter voltooing van de waterputten hebben we in 2016 ook [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes pijpen] (voor het in stand houden van de putten) en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump op zonne-energie werkende waterpompen] besteld. De bedoeling is dat in de laatste week van januari 2017 beginnen met het installeren van de pijpen. Daarna is het wachten op de aankomst van de pompen. Hopelijk kunnen we die in maart 2017 gaan installeren. Daarna, in april of mei 2017, zullen we van start gaan met de bouw van een [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet composterend toilet] in Modaso, achter dezelfde school waar we reeds aan de voorzijde een waterput geslagen hebben. Hopelijk kunnen we dat in 2017 afronden.

[b]Het Geld[/b]

Tot nu toe is de voor-financiering van de lopende projecten gedaan met geld uit onze eigen zakken. Middels het voorleggen van succesvolle projecten aan bedrijven hopen we ook enkele bedrijven zo ver krijgen om een steentje bij te dragen.

De kosten voor het slaan van waterputten hangen samen met hoe diep het grondwater zit. De kosten van de pijpen zijn sterk afhankelijk van de diepte van de put; ongeveer 56 tot 140 euro per put. De pompen zijn nog niet geimporteerd, maar we schatten dat uiteindelijk de totale kosten op ongeveer 1000 euro per pomp uit zullen komen. Daarnaast is er nog een polytank nodig, a 400 euro. De kostenopbouw wordt [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting uitgesplitst en toegelicht].

De bestuurders krijgen geen salaris. Ook krijgen de bestuurders geen enkele onkostenvergoeding. De lokale manager (Nicholas Ofori-Atta) krijgt ook geen salaris of onkostenvergoeding. Alleen aan het bouwen van de waterputten en toiletten zelf wordt geld uitgegeven. (aanschaf, import, vervoer, materiaalkosten)

[b]Locaties[/b]

Toestemming krijgen voor het bouwen van toiletten is een heel gedoe in Ghana, daar er allerlei belangen en posities meespelen. We beginnen derhalve in gebieden waar we welwillende contacten opgebouwd hebben. Voor ons tot nu toe het meest toegankelijk is het distrikt Upper Denkyira East (met Modaso en Tekyekrom), gevolgd door de distrikten Atiwa en Fanteakwa.

.

==Beleidsplan 2018==

In Modaso zijn we er in geslaagd om een waterpomp te installeren. In Tekyekrom is dit niet gelukt; de plaatselijke koningin had besloten het ter beschikking gestelde land toch te verkopen, en weigerde ander land ter beschikking te stellen. We trekken ons derhalve terug uit Tekyekrom. In 2017 zijn we er pas aan het eind van het jaar in geslaagd om een vergunnning te krijgen voor het bouwen van een composterend toilet in Modaso. Met de bouw daarvan gaan we in 2018 van start, en hopelijk kunnen we dit in 2018 ook afronden.

[b]Geld[/b]

In 2017 hebben we een donatie ontvangen van 7025 euro, waarmee we het grootste gedeelte van de kosten kunnen dekken. De rest wordt vooralsnog uit eigen zak voorgeschoten. De kosten per pomp bleken uiteindelijk 556 euro te bedragen.

.

==Beleidsplan 2019==

In Modaso hadden we de garantie nodig dat de grond waar wij op bouwen niet opgeeist kan worden voor andere doeleinden. Pas eind 2018 waren die papieren door het hooggerecht opgesteld. Nu wachten we nog op de benodigde handtekeningen. Ons is beloofd dat dit in de eerste maanden van 2019 afgerond zal worden. Het fundament voor het composterende toilet is inmiddels klaar. Voortzetting van de bouw zal beginnen nadat ook die papieren compleet zijn. In 2018 hebben we donaties ontvangen ter waarde van 2000 en 4344 euro. In 2019 gaan we dat geld gebruiken om de pickup truck af te betalen en om cement en grind te kopen voor het beton.

[b]Geld[/b]

Enkele grote [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate donaties] zijn afkomstig van bedrijven, en een reeks kleinere donaties van particulieren. Bestuurslid Thijs Klompmaker doneert maandelijks een contractueel vastgelegd vast bedrag. Overheadkosten worden door de 3 bestuursleden gedoneerd. Boekhouderskantoor Van Hall Zes uit Amsterdam heeft de boekhouding van 2016 en 2017 voor ons verzorgd zonder hiervoor kosten in rekening te brengen. Robert Hoogendoorn heeft als vrijwilliger de jaarrekening van 2018 voorbereid.

.

==Beleidsplan 2020==

De papieren voor Modaso zijn (eind 2019...) eindelijk gereed, en we kunnen nu met de bovengrondse bouw verder. Om niet teveel tijd te verliezen waren we in 2019 al vast begonnen met de fundamenten voor toiletten op 2 nieuwe, nabije lokaties: Kwameprekrom en Abrobuasen. Hopelijk kunnen we ook deze toiletten in 2020 afbouwen. In Kwameprekrom is het grondwater besmet gebleken met fecale bacterien, wat de hoge lokale kindersterfte kan verklaren. Als oplossing hiervoor hadden wij besloten tot de bouw van een spirulina raceway, waarin het opgepompte water gezuiverd kan worden door spirulina. Dit laatste project is reeds in een vergevorderd stadium, en we zullen dit in 2020 zeker af kunnen ronden.

.

==Beleidsplan 2021==

Na het voltooien van de spirulina raceway als waterzuiveringsinstallatie bleek dat het systeem goed werkt. Het systeem zuivert niet alleen, maar werkt ook preventief. Een deel van de menselijke ontlasting en kippenmest in [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Kwameprekrom Kwameprekrom] vervuild nu niet langer het grondwater, en dient nu in plaats daarvan als voedingsbron voor de groei van spirulina, dat gebruikt wordt als visvoer door de plaatselijke viskweker. Wij zijn nu door vertegenwoordigers van diverse dorpjes gevraagd om ook daar een waterzuiveringsinstallatie te komen bouwen. Ook is er belangstelling vanuit Mozambique en Tanzania. Een team van vijf vrijwilligers uit [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Manhica Manhica, Mozambique] heeft zich reeds aangemeld om de benodigde arbeid te verrichten.

.

==Beleidsplan 2022==

Na het voltooien van de spirulina raceway als wa

.
==Beleidsplan 2023==

Na het voltooien van

.

Beleidsplan

2023-02-21T20:28:19Z

RRM: /* Beleidsplan 2020 */

Beleidsplan

2023-02-21T20:28:00Z

RRM: /* Beleidsplan 2019 */

==Stichting EcoSan Ghana Beleidsplan 2017==

Het doel van de stichting ([http://www.ecosanghana.org/Kvk.pdf KvK #7433316]; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Taxes.JPG RSIN #856987682]) is het bouwen van composterende toiletten en waterputten op het platteland in Ghana om daar de watervoorziening te verbeteren.

We zijn in 2016 reeds begonnen met het slaan van waterputten in twee dorpjes nabij Dunkwa-On-Offin: [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tekyekrom Tekyekrom] en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso Modaso]. Ter voltooing van de waterputten hebben we in 2016 ook [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes pijpen] (voor het in stand houden van de putten) en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump op zonne-energie werkende waterpompen] besteld. De bedoeling is dat in de laatste week van januari 2017 beginnen met het installeren van de pijpen. Daarna is het wachten op de aankomst van de pompen. Hopelijk kunnen we die in maart 2017 gaan installeren. Daarna, in april of mei 2017, zullen we van start gaan met de bouw van een [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet composterend toilet] in Modaso, achter dezelfde school waar we reeds aan de voorzijde een waterput geslagen hebben. Hopelijk kunnen we dat in 2017 afronden.

[b]Het Geld[/b]

Tot nu toe is de voor-financiering van de lopende projecten gedaan met geld uit onze eigen zakken. Middels het voorleggen van succesvolle projecten aan bedrijven hopen we ook enkele bedrijven zo ver krijgen om een steentje bij te dragen.

De kosten voor het slaan van waterputten hangen samen met hoe diep het grondwater zit. De kosten van de pijpen zijn sterk afhankelijk van de diepte van de put; ongeveer 56 tot 140 euro per put. De pompen zijn nog niet geimporteerd, maar we schatten dat uiteindelijk de totale kosten op ongeveer 1000 euro per pomp uit zullen komen. Daarnaast is er nog een polytank nodig, a 400 euro. De kostenopbouw wordt [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting uitgesplitst en toegelicht].

De bestuurders krijgen geen salaris. Ook krijgen de bestuurders geen enkele onkostenvergoeding. De lokale manager (Nicholas Ofori-Atta) krijgt ook geen salaris of onkostenvergoeding. Alleen aan het bouwen van de waterputten en toiletten zelf wordt geld uitgegeven. (aanschaf, import, vervoer, materiaalkosten)

[b]Locaties[/b]

Toestemming krijgen voor het bouwen van toiletten is een heel gedoe in Ghana, daar er allerlei belangen en posities meespelen. We beginnen derhalve in gebieden waar we welwillende contacten opgebouwd hebben. Voor ons tot nu toe het meest toegankelijk is het distrikt Upper Denkyira East (met Modaso en Tekyekrom), gevolgd door de distrikten Atiwa en Fanteakwa.

.

==Beleidsplan 2018==

In Modaso zijn we er in geslaagd om een waterpomp te installeren. In Tekyekrom is dit niet gelukt; de plaatselijke koningin had besloten het ter beschikking gestelde land toch te verkopen, en weigerde ander land ter beschikking te stellen. We trekken ons derhalve terug uit Tekyekrom. In 2017 zijn we er pas aan het eind van het jaar in geslaagd om een vergunnning te krijgen voor het bouwen van een composterend toilet in Modaso. Met de bouw daarvan gaan we in 2018 van start, en hopelijk kunnen we dit in 2018 ook afronden.

[b]Geld[/b]

In 2017 hebben we een donatie ontvangen van 7025 euro, waarmee we het grootste gedeelte van de kosten kunnen dekken. De rest wordt vooralsnog uit eigen zak voorgeschoten. De kosten per pomp bleken uiteindelijk 556 euro te bedragen.

.

==Beleidsplan 2019==

In Modaso hadden we de garantie nodig dat de grond waar wij op bouwen niet opgeeist kan worden voor andere doeleinden. Pas eind 2018 waren die papieren door het hooggerecht opgesteld. Nu wachten we nog op de benodigde handtekeningen. Ons is beloofd dat dit in de eerste maanden van 2019 afgerond zal worden. Het fundament voor het composterende toilet is inmiddels klaar. Voortzetting van de bouw zal beginnen nadat ook die papieren compleet zijn. In 2018 hebben we donaties ontvangen ter waarde van 2000 en 4344 euro. In 2019 gaan we dat geld gebruiken om de pickup truck af te betalen en om cement en grind te kopen voor het beton.

[b]Geld[/b]

Enkele grote [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate donaties] zijn afkomstig van bedrijven, en een reeks kleinere donaties van particulieren. Bestuurslid Thijs Klompmaker doneert maandelijks een contractueel vastgelegd vast bedrag. Overheadkosten worden door de 3 bestuursleden gedoneerd. Boekhouderskantoor Van Hall Zes uit Amsterdam heeft de boekhouding van 2016 en 2017 voor ons verzorgd zonder hiervoor kosten in rekening te brengen. Robert Hoogendoorn heeft als vrijwilliger de jaarrekening van 2018 voorbereid.

.

==Beleidsplan 2020==

De papieren voor Modaso zijn (eind 2019...) eindelijk gereed, en we kunnen nu met de bovengrondse bouw verder. Om niet teveel tijd te verliezen waren we in 2019 al vast begonnen met de fundamenten voor toiletten op 2 nieuwe, nabije lokaties: Kwameprekrom en Abrobuasen. Hopelijk kunnen we ook deze toiletten in 2020 afbouwen. In Kwameprekrom is het grondwater besmet gebleken met fecale bacterien, wat de hoge lokale kindersterfte kan verklaren. Als oplossing hiervoor hadden wij besloten tot de bouw van een spirulina raceway, waarin het opgepompte water gezuiverd kan worden door spirulina. Dit laatste project is reeds in een vergevorderd stadium, en we zullen dit in 2020 zeker af kunnen ronden.

==Beleidsplan 2021==

Na het voltooien van de spirulina raceway als waterzuiveringsinstallatie bleek dat het systeem goed werkt. Het systeem zuivert niet alleen, maar werkt ook preventief. Een deel van de menselijke ontlasting en kippenmest in [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Kwameprekrom Kwameprekrom] vervuild nu niet langer het grondwater, en dient nu in plaats daarvan als voedingsbron voor de groei van spirulina, dat gebruikt wordt als visvoer door de plaatselijke viskweker. Wij zijn nu door vertegenwoordigers van diverse dorpjes gevraagd om ook daar een waterzuiveringsinstallatie te komen bouwen. Ook is er belangstelling vanuit Mozambique en Tanzania. Een team van vijf vrijwilligers uit [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Manhica Manhica, Mozambique] heeft zich reeds aangemeld om de benodigde arbeid te verrichten.

.

.

.

Beleidsplan

2023-02-21T20:27:41Z

RRM: /* Beleidsplan 2018 */

==Stichting EcoSan Ghana Beleidsplan 2017==

Het doel van de stichting ([http://www.ecosanghana.org/Kvk.pdf KvK #7433316]; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Taxes.JPG RSIN #856987682]) is het bouwen van composterende toiletten en waterputten op het platteland in Ghana om daar de watervoorziening te verbeteren.

We zijn in 2016 reeds begonnen met het slaan van waterputten in twee dorpjes nabij Dunkwa-On-Offin: [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tekyekrom Tekyekrom] en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso Modaso]. Ter voltooing van de waterputten hebben we in 2016 ook [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes pijpen] (voor het in stand houden van de putten) en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump op zonne-energie werkende waterpompen] besteld. De bedoeling is dat in de laatste week van januari 2017 beginnen met het installeren van de pijpen. Daarna is het wachten op de aankomst van de pompen. Hopelijk kunnen we die in maart 2017 gaan installeren. Daarna, in april of mei 2017, zullen we van start gaan met de bouw van een [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet composterend toilet] in Modaso, achter dezelfde school waar we reeds aan de voorzijde een waterput geslagen hebben. Hopelijk kunnen we dat in 2017 afronden.

[b]Het Geld[/b]

Tot nu toe is de voor-financiering van de lopende projecten gedaan met geld uit onze eigen zakken. Middels het voorleggen van succesvolle projecten aan bedrijven hopen we ook enkele bedrijven zo ver krijgen om een steentje bij te dragen.

De kosten voor het slaan van waterputten hangen samen met hoe diep het grondwater zit. De kosten van de pijpen zijn sterk afhankelijk van de diepte van de put; ongeveer 56 tot 140 euro per put. De pompen zijn nog niet geimporteerd, maar we schatten dat uiteindelijk de totale kosten op ongeveer 1000 euro per pomp uit zullen komen. Daarnaast is er nog een polytank nodig, a 400 euro. De kostenopbouw wordt [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting uitgesplitst en toegelicht].

De bestuurders krijgen geen salaris. Ook krijgen de bestuurders geen enkele onkostenvergoeding. De lokale manager (Nicholas Ofori-Atta) krijgt ook geen salaris of onkostenvergoeding. Alleen aan het bouwen van de waterputten en toiletten zelf wordt geld uitgegeven. (aanschaf, import, vervoer, materiaalkosten)

[b]Locaties[/b]

Toestemming krijgen voor het bouwen van toiletten is een heel gedoe in Ghana, daar er allerlei belangen en posities meespelen. We beginnen derhalve in gebieden waar we welwillende contacten opgebouwd hebben. Voor ons tot nu toe het meest toegankelijk is het distrikt Upper Denkyira East (met Modaso en Tekyekrom), gevolgd door de distrikten Atiwa en Fanteakwa.

.

==Beleidsplan 2018==

In Modaso zijn we er in geslaagd om een waterpomp te installeren. In Tekyekrom is dit niet gelukt; de plaatselijke koningin had besloten het ter beschikking gestelde land toch te verkopen, en weigerde ander land ter beschikking te stellen. We trekken ons derhalve terug uit Tekyekrom. In 2017 zijn we er pas aan het eind van het jaar in geslaagd om een vergunnning te krijgen voor het bouwen van een composterend toilet in Modaso. Met de bouw daarvan gaan we in 2018 van start, en hopelijk kunnen we dit in 2018 ook afronden.

[b]Geld[/b]

In 2017 hebben we een donatie ontvangen van 7025 euro, waarmee we het grootste gedeelte van de kosten kunnen dekken. De rest wordt vooralsnog uit eigen zak voorgeschoten. De kosten per pomp bleken uiteindelijk 556 euro te bedragen.

.

==Beleidsplan 2019==

In Modaso hadden we de garantie nodig dat de grond waar wij op bouwen niet opgeeist kan worden voor andere doeleinden. Pas eind 2018 waren die papieren door het hooggerecht opgesteld. Nu wachten we nog op de benodigde handtekeningen. Ons is beloofd dat dit in de eerste maanden van 2019 afgerond zal worden. Het fundament voor het composterende toilet is inmiddels klaar. Voortzetting van de bouw zal beginnen nadat ook die papieren compleet zijn. In 2018 hebben we donaties ontvangen ter waarde van 2000 en 4344 euro. In 2019 gaan we dat geld gebruiken om de pickup truck af te betalen en om cement en grind te kopen voor het beton.

[b]Geld[/b]

Enkele grote [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate donaties] zijn afkomstig van bedrijven, en een reeks kleinere donaties van particulieren. Bestuurslid Thijs Klompmaker doneert maandelijks een contractueel vastgelegd vast bedrag. Overheadkosten worden door de 3 bestuursleden gedoneerd. Boekhouderskantoor Van Hall Zes uit Amsterdam heeft de boekhouding van 2016 en 2017 voor ons verzorgd zonder hiervoor kosten in rekening te brengen. Robert Hoogendoorn heeft als vrijwilliger de jaarrekening van 2018 voorbereid.

==Beleidsplan 2020==

De papieren voor Modaso zijn (eind 2019...) eindelijk gereed, en we kunnen nu met de bovengrondse bouw verder. Om niet teveel tijd te verliezen waren we in 2019 al vast begonnen met de fundamenten voor toiletten op 2 nieuwe, nabije lokaties: Kwameprekrom en Abrobuasen. Hopelijk kunnen we ook deze toiletten in 2020 afbouwen. In Kwameprekrom is het grondwater besmet gebleken met fecale bacterien, wat de hoge lokale kindersterfte kan verklaren. Als oplossing hiervoor hadden wij besloten tot de bouw van een spirulina raceway, waarin het opgepompte water gezuiverd kan worden door spirulina. Dit laatste project is reeds in een vergevorderd stadium, en we zullen dit in 2020 zeker af kunnen ronden.

==Beleidsplan 2021==

Na het voltooien van de spirulina raceway als waterzuiveringsinstallatie bleek dat het systeem goed werkt. Het systeem zuivert niet alleen, maar werkt ook preventief. Een deel van de menselijke ontlasting en kippenmest in [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Kwameprekrom Kwameprekrom] vervuild nu niet langer het grondwater, en dient nu in plaats daarvan als voedingsbron voor de groei van spirulina, dat gebruikt wordt als visvoer door de plaatselijke viskweker. Wij zijn nu door vertegenwoordigers van diverse dorpjes gevraagd om ook daar een waterzuiveringsinstallatie te komen bouwen. Ook is er belangstelling vanuit Mozambique en Tanzania. Een team van vijf vrijwilligers uit [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Manhica Manhica, Mozambique] heeft zich reeds aangemeld om de benodigde arbeid te verrichten.

.

.

.

Beleidsplan

2023-02-21T20:27:18Z

RRM: /* Stichting EcoSan Ghana Beleidsplan 2017 */

==Stichting EcoSan Ghana Beleidsplan 2017==

Het doel van de stichting ([http://www.ecosanghana.org/Kvk.pdf KvK #7433316]; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Taxes.JPG RSIN #856987682]) is het bouwen van composterende toiletten en waterputten op het platteland in Ghana om daar de watervoorziening te verbeteren.

We zijn in 2016 reeds begonnen met het slaan van waterputten in twee dorpjes nabij Dunkwa-On-Offin: [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tekyekrom Tekyekrom] en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso Modaso]. Ter voltooing van de waterputten hebben we in 2016 ook [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes pijpen] (voor het in stand houden van de putten) en [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump op zonne-energie werkende waterpompen] besteld. De bedoeling is dat in de laatste week van januari 2017 beginnen met het installeren van de pijpen. Daarna is het wachten op de aankomst van de pompen. Hopelijk kunnen we die in maart 2017 gaan installeren. Daarna, in april of mei 2017, zullen we van start gaan met de bouw van een [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Composting_toilet composterend toilet] in Modaso, achter dezelfde school waar we reeds aan de voorzijde een waterput geslagen hebben. Hopelijk kunnen we dat in 2017 afronden.

[b]Het Geld[/b]

Tot nu toe is de voor-financiering van de lopende projecten gedaan met geld uit onze eigen zakken. Middels het voorleggen van succesvolle projecten aan bedrijven hopen we ook enkele bedrijven zo ver krijgen om een steentje bij te dragen.

De kosten voor het slaan van waterputten hangen samen met hoe diep het grondwater zit. De kosten van de pijpen zijn sterk afhankelijk van de diepte van de put; ongeveer 56 tot 140 euro per put. De pompen zijn nog niet geimporteerd, maar we schatten dat uiteindelijk de totale kosten op ongeveer 1000 euro per pomp uit zullen komen. Daarnaast is er nog een polytank nodig, a 400 euro. De kostenopbouw wordt [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting uitgesplitst en toegelicht].

De bestuurders krijgen geen salaris. Ook krijgen de bestuurders geen enkele onkostenvergoeding. De lokale manager (Nicholas Ofori-Atta) krijgt ook geen salaris of onkostenvergoeding. Alleen aan het bouwen van de waterputten en toiletten zelf wordt geld uitgegeven. (aanschaf, import, vervoer, materiaalkosten)

[b]Locaties[/b]

Toestemming krijgen voor het bouwen van toiletten is een heel gedoe in Ghana, daar er allerlei belangen en posities meespelen. We beginnen derhalve in gebieden waar we welwillende contacten opgebouwd hebben. Voor ons tot nu toe het meest toegankelijk is het distrikt Upper Denkyira East (met Modaso en Tekyekrom), gevolgd door de distrikten Atiwa en Fanteakwa.

.

==Beleidsplan 2018==

In Modaso zijn we er in geslaagd om een waterpomp te installeren. In Tekyekrom is dit niet gelukt; de plaatselijke koningin had besloten het ter beschikking gestelde land toch te verkopen, en weigerde ander land ter beschikking te stellen. We trekken ons derhalve terug uit Tekyekrom. In 2017 zijn we er pas aan het eind van het jaar in geslaagd om een vergunnning te krijgen voor het bouwen van een composterend toilet in Modaso. Met de bouw daarvan gaan we in 2018 van start, en hopelijk kunnen we dit in 2018 ook afronden.

[b]Geld[/b]

In 2017 hebben we een donatie ontvangen van 7025 euro, waarmee we het grootste gedeelte van de kosten kunnen dekken. De rest wordt vooralsnog uit eigen zak voorgeschoten. De kosten per pomp bleken uiteindelijk 556 euro te bedragen.

==Beleidsplan 2019==

In Modaso hadden we de garantie nodig dat de grond waar wij op bouwen niet opgeeist kan worden voor andere doeleinden. Pas eind 2018 waren die papieren door het hooggerecht opgesteld. Nu wachten we nog op de benodigde handtekeningen. Ons is beloofd dat dit in de eerste maanden van 2019 afgerond zal worden. Het fundament voor het composterende toilet is inmiddels klaar. Voortzetting van de bouw zal beginnen nadat ook die papieren compleet zijn. In 2018 hebben we donaties ontvangen ter waarde van 2000 en 4344 euro. In 2019 gaan we dat geld gebruiken om de pickup truck af te betalen en om cement en grind te kopen voor het beton.

[b]Geld[/b]

Enkele grote [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate donaties] zijn afkomstig van bedrijven, en een reeks kleinere donaties van particulieren. Bestuurslid Thijs Klompmaker doneert maandelijks een contractueel vastgelegd vast bedrag. Overheadkosten worden door de 3 bestuursleden gedoneerd. Boekhouderskantoor Van Hall Zes uit Amsterdam heeft de boekhouding van 2016 en 2017 voor ons verzorgd zonder hiervoor kosten in rekening te brengen. Robert Hoogendoorn heeft als vrijwilliger de jaarrekening van 2018 voorbereid.

==Beleidsplan 2020==

De papieren voor Modaso zijn (eind 2019...) eindelijk gereed, en we kunnen nu met de bovengrondse bouw verder. Om niet teveel tijd te verliezen waren we in 2019 al vast begonnen met de fundamenten voor toiletten op 2 nieuwe, nabije lokaties: Kwameprekrom en Abrobuasen. Hopelijk kunnen we ook deze toiletten in 2020 afbouwen. In Kwameprekrom is het grondwater besmet gebleken met fecale bacterien, wat de hoge lokale kindersterfte kan verklaren. Als oplossing hiervoor hadden wij besloten tot de bouw van een spirulina raceway, waarin het opgepompte water gezuiverd kan worden door spirulina. Dit laatste project is reeds in een vergevorderd stadium, en we zullen dit in 2020 zeker af kunnen ronden.

==Beleidsplan 2021==

Na het voltooien van de spirulina raceway als waterzuiveringsinstallatie bleek dat het systeem goed werkt. Het systeem zuivert niet alleen, maar werkt ook preventief. Een deel van de menselijke ontlasting en kippenmest in [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Kwameprekrom Kwameprekrom] vervuild nu niet langer het grondwater, en dient nu in plaats daarvan als voedingsbron voor de groei van spirulina, dat gebruikt wordt als visvoer door de plaatselijke viskweker. Wij zijn nu door vertegenwoordigers van diverse dorpjes gevraagd om ook daar een waterzuiveringsinstallatie te komen bouwen. Ook is er belangstelling vanuit Mozambique en Tanzania. Een team van vijf vrijwilligers uit [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Manhica Manhica, Mozambique] heeft zich reeds aangemeld om de benodigde arbeid te verrichten.

.

.

.

Cement-25-01-2021

2022-09-16T15:21:46Z

RRM:

Cement-25-01-2021

2022-09-16T15:12:39Z

RRM: Created page with " For the water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique we need to make concrete blocks to build a wall around the designated ar..."

Costs

2022-09-16T15:02:48Z

RRM: /* 2020 */

Accounted Costs Stichting Ecosan Ghana

.

'''"FloFlo"''' - The percussion drill tower used for drilling bore holes: initial costs €3500, owned by [http://www.thijsklompmaker.com Thijs Klompmaker] (and thus no cost, nor an asset)

.
==2016==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Casing pipes]"''' - From China, 100 meter pipes for lining the boreholes: €1172,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Standard waterpumps]"''' - From Belgium, for shallow wells. Costs for 5 pumps: €745,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Solar powered waterpumps]"''' - From China, for deep wells. Costs for 3 complete sets: €1218,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Import Casing Pipes]"''' - Import of casing pipes from China (in)to Ghana, Tema: €1155

.

Total costs 2016: [b]€4290[/b]

.

==2017==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Transport Cast Iron Waterpumps]"''' - Transport case iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Dunkwa-On_Offin - €60

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Pole Solar Pole]"''' - Solar pole for mounting the solar panel on, project Modaso: €208

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Polytank Polytank]"''' - Polytank for storing water, project Modaso: €358

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Import Solar Pumps]"''' - Costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps: €449

.

Total costs 2017: [b]€1075[/b]

.

==2018==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Pickup_truck Pick-up truck]"''' - Second-hand 2001 Nissan Frontier pick-up truck: €4.137,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso_composting_toilet Modaso composting toilet]"''' - Sand for the talud to build the toilet on: €430,-

.

Total costs 2018: [b]€4567[/b]

.

==2019==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement_Modaso Cement Modaso]"''' - Cement for the toilet foundation - project Modaso; 40 bags: [b]€2,333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Rebars_Abrobuasen Steel Sheets and Cement for Abrobuasen]"''' - Rebars, cement, etc for Abrobuasen toilet foundation: [b]€2,078[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Limestone_chippings Limestone chippings]"''' - Limestone chippings for making spirulina raceway concrete (Kwameprekrom); 40 metric tonnes: [b]€3,173[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-19-08-2019 Cement Kwameprekrom]"''' - Cement for making concrete for the water-purification raceway - project Kwameprekrom; 110 bags: [b]€6,416[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Circulation_pump Circulation waterpump]"''' - Circulation waterpump for keeping the water in motion - project Kwameprekrom. [b]€333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Sand_Kwameprekrom Sand for project Kwameprekrom]"''' - Sand for making concrete for the spirulina raceway in Kwameprekrom. [b]€500[/b]

.

Total costs 2019: [b]€14,833[/b]

.

==2020==
Due to COVID19, we have been unable to travel to Ghana to verify financial transactions, and we have therefore suspended buying new materials, and have been working with materials already bought previously. In Mozambique, we initiated a trial in Manhica, to build a spirulina raceway to purify sewage water.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-05-10-2020 Cement Manhica]"''' - Cement bought in South Africa for making concrete for the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique - project Manhica: [b]€597[/b]
.

.
==2021==
Due to COVID19, a lack of oversight led to a sharp decline in activities. We built a wall around an area designated for water purification in Santa Isabel, Mozambique.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-25-01-2021 Santa Isabel]"''' - Cement and sand for making concrete blocks for a wall around a water-purification raceway in Santa Isabel, Mozambique - project Santa Isabel: [b]€3450,-[/b]

Donate

2022-09-15T13:24:57Z

RRM: /* Please donate also! */

All donations are 100% used for [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Accounting actual building costs] [b]ONLY[/b] (eg concrete, pumps, solar panels, but NO salaries).

No donations have ever been spent, and never will be spend on overhead costs, or any other costs (travel expenses, food, housing etc.).

All such other costs are financed by board members.

Please verify by checking our Annual Statements of Account [http://www.ecosanghana.org/index.html here]

Listed below are all the donations made to the [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=EcoSan_Ghana Stichting EcoSan Ghana].

Please verify by checking all our bank slips [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html here]

==2017==
* 11-09-2017 - Donation by Grandcafe LÓpera Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 7025 euro
.

2017 total: [b]7025 euro[/b]

.

==2018==
* 23-10-2018 - Donation by Jurisgroep BV: 1000 euro
* 09-11-2018 - Donation by Grandcafe LÓpera Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 4344 euro
* 04-12-2018 - Donation by Jurisgroep BV: 1000 euro
* 21-12-2018 - Donation by [https://www.vanhallzes.nl/ Van Hall Zes Accountants], by compiling our Annual Statements of Account for 2016 and 2017, for [b]FREE!![/b]
* 24-12-2018 - Donation by Elsbeth Hamstra: 75 euro (board member) to cover overheadcosts
* 29-12-2018 - Donation by Thijs Klompmaker: 56 euro (board member) to cover overheadcosts
* 31-12-2018 - Donation by Oscar Bannink: 56 euro (board member) to cover overheadcosts
.

2018 total: [b]6531 euro[/b]

.

==2019==
* 17-01-2019 - Donation by Jurisgroep BV: 1000 euro
* 02-02-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - January 2019: 400 euro
* 05-02-2019 - Donation by Jurisgroep BV: 1000 euro
* 02-03-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - February 2019: 400 euro
* 05-03-2019 - Donation by Jurisgroep BV: 1000 euro
* 28-03-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - March 2019: 400 euro
* 04-04-2019 - Donation by Jurisgroep BV: 1000 euro
* 04-05-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - April 2019: 400 euro
* 04-05-2019 - 67% of montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] April 2019: 400 euro
* 26-05-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - May 2019: 400 euro
* 26-05-2019 - 33% of montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - April 2019: 200 euro
* 26-05-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - May 2019: 600 euro
* 21-06-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - June 2019: 400 euro
* 21-06-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - June 2019: 600 euro
* 21-07-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - July 2019: 400 euro
* 21-07-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - July 2019: 600 euro
* 04-08-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - August 2019: 600 euro
* 16-08-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - August 2019: 400 euro
* 16-08-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - September 2019: 400 euro
* 23-08-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - September 2019: 600 euro
* 16-09-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - October 2019: 400 euro
* 16-09-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - October 2019: 600 euro
* 28-10-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - November 2019: 400 euro
* 28-10-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - November 2019: 600 euro
* 01-12-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - December 2019: 400 euro
* 01-12-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - December 2019: 600 euro
* 10-12-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - January 2020: 400 euro
* 10-12-2019 - Montly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - January 2020: 600 euro
* 21-12-2019 - Donation by Elsbeth Hamstra (board member) to cover overheadcosts: 100 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by FB Simmes: 5 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by EA van den Berg: 10 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by E van Gelder: 5 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by PJAM vd Lint 50 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by A Peters: 15 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by AAD Alsemgeest: 10 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by OE de Haan: 10 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by CW van den Haak: 10 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by WJ de Gooijer CJ: 20 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by JW Koelewijn eo MA B: 20 euro
* 24-12-2019 - Donation by AJS van Gelderen: 20 euro
* 25-12-2019 - Donation by DA Geradts: 10 euro
* 25-12-2019 - Donation by QR Kroes: 25 euro
* 25-12-2019 - Donation by JA Den Outer: 25 euro
* 25-12-2019 - Donation by DJ van der Plas: 15 euro
* 25-12-2019 - Donation by ME Dest: 10 euro
* 26-12-2019 - Donation by MC Wijnekus: 20 euro
* 26-12-2019 - Donation by SJJ de Jong: 30 euro
* 27-12-2019 - Donation by JH Scholten en/of AJ: 50 euro
* 27-12-2019 - Donation by JH Hansen: 20 euro
* 28-12-2019 - Donation by NHG Pennings: 10 euro
* 28-12-2019 - Donation by PH van der Heide CJ: 5 euro
* 28-12-2019 - Donation by RC Bosch: 7,50 euro
* 29-12-2019 - Donation by JWG van der Linde: 12,50 euro
* 29-12-2019 - Donation by NJ van Duijn en/of Hoof: 30 euro
* 29-12-2019 - Donation by MM Dierikx CJ: 25 euro
* 30-12-2019 - Donation by AM Diekman: 20 euro
* 30-12-2019 - Donation by JS Geenen CJ: 50 euro
* 30-12-2019 - Donation by HJJ Kouijzer: 15 euro
* 31-12-2019 - Donation by CF Tollenaar: 10 euro
* 31-12-2019 - Donation by T Franke: 20 euro
* 31-12-2019 - Donation by Heleen de Waard: 20 euro
* 31-12-2019 - Donation by ELC van de Noort: 25 euro
.

2019 total: [b] 15,930 euro[/b]

.

==2020==
* 01-01-2020 - Donation by P Wagenvoorde: 5 euro
* 03-01-2020 - Donation by AJ Voskamp: 10 euro
* 03-01-2020 - Donation by MJ Witkamp: 20 euro
* 03-01-2020 - Donation by A Grigoleit: 10 euro
* 03-01-2020 - Donation by H Westerhuis: 10 euro
* 03-01-2020 - Donation by JM Postma, van Erven: 10 euro
* 03-01-2020 - Donation by MG Postma: 25 euro
* 04-01-2020 - Donation by R van der Lint: 5 euro
* 04-01-2020 - Donation by SB Spit: 10 euro
* 05-01-2020 - Donation by R Rehm: 10 euro
* 06-01-2020 - Donation by MJC van Graaf Praktijk: 30 euro
* 06-01-2020 - Donation by Th Nicola: 10 euro
* 06-01-2020 - Donation by P en CJ Verhoog: 10 euro
* 06-01-2020 - Donation by AJ Benavente: 10 euro
* 06-01-2020 - Donation by A de Jager: 10 euro
* 06-01-2020 - Donation by VD Moorthaemer en M Berg: 15 euro
* 07-01-2020 - Donation by MJ Goudsmit: 15 euro
* 07-01-2020 - Donation by WM Verheij: 10 euro
* 08-01-2020 - Donation by HAF van Domselaar-Slort: 10 euro
* 08-01-2020 - Donation by HJA Stuifbergen: 15 euro
* 08-01-2020 - Donation by LECGV Verkooijen: 15 euro
* 09-01-2020 - Donation by EJ Gerritsen: 20 euro
* 09-01-2020 - Donation by A Nusmeijer: 15 euro
* 10-01-2020 - Donation by H van der Hoek: 15 euro
* 10-01-2020 - Donation by L Singels: 20 euro
* 13-01-2020 - Donation by AJ Nooij: 10 euro
* 13-01-2020 - Donation by B Rijke: 10 euro
* 13-01-2020 - Donation by PI Keizer: 10 euro
* 13-01-2020 - Donation by B Schulp: 4,50 euro
* 19-01-2020 - Donation by AM Louwerse: 10 euro
* 21-01-2020 - Donation by JM Paauw: 15 euro
* 28-01-2020 - Donation by EP Kniesmeijer: 10 euro
* 29-01-2020 - Donation by JS Kallenbach-Har: 10 euro
* 29-01-2020 - Donation by RM Evenhuis: 9 euro
* 14-02-2020 - Donation by MGH Schoonderbeek: 50 euro
* 24-03-2020 - Monthly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - February 2020: 600 euro
* 24-03-2020 - Monthly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - February 2020: 400 euro
* 26-03-2020 - Monthly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - March 2020: 600 euro
* 26-03-2020 - Monthly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - March 2020: 400 euro
* 08-05-2020 - Donation by MR Ludenhoff: 15 euro
* 04-06-2020 - Monthly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019003.pdf contract #201903] - April 2020: 600 euro
* 04-06-2020 - Monthly donation by Thijs Klompmaker; [http://www.ecosanghana.org/Contract-2019002.pdf contract #201902] - April 2020: 206,90 euro (400 minus 50 euro withdrawal 26-07-2020 and minus 143,10 to cover overheadcosts)
* 09-06-2020 - Donation by WJ de Leeuw: 10 euro
* 21-12-2020 - Donation to cover overhead costs, by E Hamstra: 100 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by P J A M vd Lint: 50 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by Annemiek nusmeijer: 15 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by E van Gelder: 10 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by JH Hansen: 25 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by .P. Kniesmeijer: 10 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by JH nijs: 10 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by M C Wijnekus: 25 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by AM Louwerse: 10 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by C S Orton-Rosier: 15 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by A Grigoleit: 25 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by MP Drenth, Mw AB Blom: 20 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by W H Oudheusden: 5 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by E J Gerritsen: 25 euro
* 28-12-2020 - Donation by JA de Boer: 10 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by ME Dest: 10 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by FB Simmes: 10 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by M Vester: 5 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by C Maree-van Boeijen: 10 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by M G Charbon-Rosier: 20 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by WAM Engbers: 15 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by B Rijke: 20 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by JA Fraijman: 20 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by JM Paauw: 15 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by MT Kneppers: 25 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by PCJ Verhoog: 20 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by D de Vries: 25 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by JH Moerkerk: 25 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by P Wagenvoorde: 20 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by WAM Rodenburg: 50 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by Stichting Internationaal: 25 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by CW van den Haak: 10 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by RC Bosch: 7,50 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by : 15 euro
* 29-12-2020 - Donation by : 15 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by GJ Boter: 15 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by RJ Vos: 20 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by RO Kalff CJ: 20 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by M.A.M. Uijttewaal: 25 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by SJJ de Jong: 25 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by JCB Timmer: 15 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by A J S van Gelderen: 10 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by EE Ide: 7 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by DJ van der Plas: 20 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by AAD Alsemgeest: 15 euro
* 30-12-2020 - Donation by QR Kroes: 25 euro
* 31-12-2020 - Donation by MJC van Graaf Praktijk: 50 euro
* 31-12-2020 - Donation by Mej CJ Vos: 20 euro
* 31-12-2020 - Donation by R Rikkelman: 20 euro
* 31-12-2020 - Donation by R van Dijk: 50 euro
* 31-12-2020 - Donation by CCML Bongers: 5 euro
.

2020 total: [b] 4,483 euro[/b]

.

==2021==
* 01-01-2021 - Donation by
.

2021 total: [b]xxxx euro[/b]

Contractual donations by Thijs Klompmaker over 2021 have been postponed to 2022, and are therefore not included in the 2021 figures.

.

==Please donate also!==
You can make a donation by transferring money to the EcoSan Ghana bank account in Amsterdam, The Netherlands: NL49ABNA0415381711

The National Tax Agency (Belastingdienst) granted us the ANBI status (see [http://www.ecosanghana.org/ANBI.html How to verify our ANBI status]), so that donations to EcoSan Ghana are deductable.

If you want to donate a set amount monthly, we will sign a contract, which ensures that your donations are 100% deductable.

Accounting

2022-09-15T13:11:54Z

RRM:

We publically display all our incomes and expenses regarding the activities of [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=EcoSan_Ghana EcoSanGhana]
These listed costs are specified on the pages dedicated to the various items/projects. This list is 100% complete and 100% public. Costs not listed are expenses not refunded. All related, but unlisted costs (management, travelling costs, webhosting, fundraising etc) have been covered by volunteers/members of the board of direction, and thus are no expenses of EcoSanGhana.

[http://www.ecosanghana.org/ Annual Statements of Account]

.

=Income=
The only income we have, are donations.

Please check [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate this page] for all donations ever made to the Stichting EcoSan Ghana.

.
=Costs=
All accounted costs are direct costs for building materials and wages. Excluded for reimbursement are all costs made by members of the board, such as travel expenses, costs for housing and food etc.

All costs are listed on [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Costs this page]

.

=Banking=

Please check [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Banking this page] for all Stichting Ecosan bank transfers

Accounting

2022-09-15T12:52:29Z

RRM: /* Banking */

Banking

2022-09-15T12:51:14Z

RRM: Created page with "=Banking= ==2017== * 11-09-2017 - Donation by Grandcafe LÓpera Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 7025 euro * 13-09-2017 - Refund (A) of casing pipes to Thijs Klompmaker: 1171.95 eu..."

=Banking=
==2017==
* 11-09-2017 - Donation by Grandcafe LÓpera Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 7025 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (A) of casing pipes to Thijs Klompmaker: 1171.95 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (B) of cast iron waterpumps (excluding transport to Ghana) to Thijs Klompmaker: 684.86 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (C) of solar powered waterpumps to Thijs Klompmaker: 1218.16 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (D) of costs for importing casing pipes, to Thijs Klompmaker: 1155 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (E) of costs for transportation of cast-iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Ghana, to Thijs Klompmaker: 60 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (F) of costs for solar pole, to Thijs Klompmaker: 208 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (G) of costs for polytank, to Thijs Klompmaker: 358 euro
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

==2018==
* 26-01-2018 - Refund of costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps (H), to Thijs Klompmaker: 449 euro
* 21-02-2018 - Refund of costs for buying 5 trips of sand (J), to Thijs Klompmaker: 430 euro
* 01-11-2018 - partial refund (1000 of 4137 euro) for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1000 euro
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

==2019==
* 21-07-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1137 euro (2000 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 04-08-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 500 euro (1500 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 19-08-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 500 euro (1000 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 23-08-2019 - final partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1000 euro (0 euro remaining to be refunded)
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

Accounting

2022-09-15T12:50:32Z

RRM:

On this page all [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=EcoSan_Ghana EcoSanGhana] expenses and donations are listed. These costs are specified on the pages dedicated to the various items/projects. This list is 100% complete and 100% public. Costs not listed are expenses not refunded. All related, but unlisted costs (management, travelling costs, webhosting, fundraising etc) have been covered by volunteers/members of the board of direction, and thus are no expenses of EcoSanGhana.

[http://www.ecosanghana.org/ Annual Statements of Account]

.

=Income=
The only income we have, are donations.

Please check [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate this page] for all donations ever made to the Stichting EcoSan Ghana.

.
=Costs=
All accounted costs are direct costs for building materials and wages. Excluded for reimbursement are all costs made by members of the board, such as travel expenses, costs for housing and food etc.

All costs are listed on [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Costs this page]

.

=Banking=

Please check [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Banking this page] for all Stichting Ecosan bank transfers

=Banking=
==2017==
* 11-09-2017 - Donation by Grandcafe LÓpera Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 7025 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (A) of casing pipes to Thijs Klompmaker: 1171.95 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (B) of cast iron waterpumps (excluding transport to Ghana) to Thijs Klompmaker: 684.86 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (C) of solar powered waterpumps to Thijs Klompmaker: 1218.16 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (D) of costs for importing casing pipes, to Thijs Klompmaker: 1155 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (E) of costs for transportation of cast-iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Ghana, to Thijs Klompmaker: 60 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (F) of costs for solar pole, to Thijs Klompmaker: 208 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (G) of costs for polytank, to Thijs Klompmaker: 358 euro
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

==2018==
* 26-01-2018 - Refund of costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps (H), to Thijs Klompmaker: 449 euro
* 21-02-2018 - Refund of costs for buying 5 trips of sand (J), to Thijs Klompmaker: 430 euro
* 01-11-2018 - partial refund (1000 of 4137 euro) for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1000 euro
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

==2019==
* 21-07-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1137 euro (2000 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 04-08-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 500 euro (1500 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 19-08-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 500 euro (1000 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 23-08-2019 - final partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1000 euro (0 euro remaining to be refunded)
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

Accounting

2022-09-15T12:46:26Z

RRM: /* Costs */

On this page all [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=EcoSan_Ghana EcoSanGhana] expenses and donations are listed. These costs are specified on the pages dedicated to the various items/projects. This list is 100% complete and 100% public. Costs not listed are expenses not refunded. All related, but unlisted costs (management, travelling costs, webhosting, fundraising etc) have been covered by volunteers/members of the board of direction, and thus are no expenses of EcoSanGhana.

[http://www.ecosanghana.org/ Annual Statements of Account]

.
=Income=
The only income we have, are donations.

Please check [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate this page] for all donations ever made to the Stichting EcoSan Ghana.

.
=Costs=
All accounted costs are direct costs for building materials and wages. Excluded for reimbursement are all costs made by members of the board, such as travel expenses, costs for housing and food etc.

All costs are listed on [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Costs this page]

.

=Banking=
==2017==
* 11-09-2017 - Donation by Grandcafe LÓpera Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 7025 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (A) of casing pipes to Thijs Klompmaker: 1171.95 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (B) of cast iron waterpumps (excluding transport to Ghana) to Thijs Klompmaker: 684.86 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (C) of solar powered waterpumps to Thijs Klompmaker: 1218.16 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (D) of costs for importing casing pipes, to Thijs Klompmaker: 1155 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (E) of costs for transportation of cast-iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Ghana, to Thijs Klompmaker: 60 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (F) of costs for solar pole, to Thijs Klompmaker: 208 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (G) of costs for polytank, to Thijs Klompmaker: 358 euro
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

==2018==
* 26-01-2018 - Refund of costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps (H), to Thijs Klompmaker: 449 euro
* 21-02-2018 - Refund of costs for buying 5 trips of sand (J), to Thijs Klompmaker: 430 euro
* 01-11-2018 - partial refund (1000 of 4137 euro) for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1000 euro
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

==2019==
* 21-07-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1137 euro (2000 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 04-08-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 500 euro (1500 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 19-08-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 500 euro (1000 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 23-08-2019 - final partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1000 euro (0 euro remaining to be refunded)
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

Accounting

2022-09-15T12:46:06Z

RRM: /* Costs */

On this page all [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=EcoSan_Ghana EcoSanGhana] expenses and donations are listed. These costs are specified on the pages dedicated to the various items/projects. This list is 100% complete and 100% public. Costs not listed are expenses not refunded. All related, but unlisted costs (management, travelling costs, webhosting, fundraising etc) have been covered by volunteers/members of the board of direction, and thus are no expenses of EcoSanGhana.

[http://www.ecosanghana.org/ Annual Statements of Account]

.
=Income=
The only income we have, are donations.

Please check [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Donate this page] for all donations ever made to the Stichting EcoSan Ghana.

.
=Costs=
All accounted costs are direct costs for building materials and wages. Excluded for reimbursement are all costs made by members of the board, such as travel expenses, costs for housing and food etc.

All costs are listed on [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Costs this page]
.

=Banking=
==2017==
* 11-09-2017 - Donation by Grandcafe LÓpera Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 7025 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (A) of casing pipes to Thijs Klompmaker: 1171.95 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (B) of cast iron waterpumps (excluding transport to Ghana) to Thijs Klompmaker: 684.86 euro
* 13-09-2017 - Refund (C) of solar powered waterpumps to Thijs Klompmaker: 1218.16 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (D) of costs for importing casing pipes, to Thijs Klompmaker: 1155 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (E) of costs for transportation of cast-iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Ghana, to Thijs Klompmaker: 60 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (F) of costs for solar pole, to Thijs Klompmaker: 208 euro
* 20-09-2017 - Refund (G) of costs for polytank, to Thijs Klompmaker: 358 euro
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

==2018==
* 26-01-2018 - Refund of costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps (H), to Thijs Klompmaker: 449 euro
* 21-02-2018 - Refund of costs for buying 5 trips of sand (J), to Thijs Klompmaker: 430 euro
* 01-11-2018 - partial refund (1000 of 4137 euro) for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1000 euro
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

==2019==
* 21-07-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1137 euro (2000 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 04-08-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 500 euro (1500 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 19-08-2019 - partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 500 euro (1000 euro remaining to be refunded)
* 23-08-2019 - final partial refund for buying the Frontier pick-up truck (I): 1000 euro (0 euro remaining to be refunded)
* [http://www.ecosanghana.org/bank.html All bank slips]

Costs

2022-09-15T12:45:20Z

RRM:

Accounted Costs Stichting Ecosan Ghana

.

'''"FloFlo"''' - The percussion drill tower used for drilling bore holes: initial costs €3500, owned by [http://www.thijsklompmaker.com Thijs Klompmaker] (and thus no cost, nor an asset)

.
==2016==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Casing pipes]"''' - From China, 100 meter pipes for lining the boreholes: €1172,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Standard waterpumps]"''' - From Belgium, for shallow wells. Costs for 5 pumps: €745,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Solar powered waterpumps]"''' - From China, for deep wells. Costs for 3 complete sets: €1218,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Import Casing Pipes]"''' - Import of casing pipes from China (in)to Ghana, Tema: €1155

.

Total costs 2016: [b]€4290[/b]

.

==2017==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Transport Cast Iron Waterpumps]"''' - Transport case iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Dunkwa-On_Offin - €60

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Pole Solar Pole]"''' - Solar pole for mounting the solar panel on, project Modaso: €208

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Polytank Polytank]"''' - Polytank for storing water, project Modaso: €358

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Import Solar Pumps]"''' - Costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps: €449

.

Total costs 2017: [b]€1075[/b]

.

==2018==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Pickup_truck Pick-up truck]"''' - Second-hand 2001 Nissan Frontier pick-up truck: €4.137,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso_composting_toilet Modaso composting toilet]"''' - Sand for the talud to build the toilet on: €430,-

.

Total costs 2018: [b]€4567[/b]

.

==2019==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement_Modaso Cement Modaso]"''' - Cement for the toilet foundation - project Modaso; 40 bags: [b]€2,333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Rebars_Abrobuasen Steel Sheets and Cement for Abrobuasen]"''' - Rebars, cement, etc for Abrobuasen toilet foundation: [b]€2,078[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Limestone_chippings Limestone chippings]"''' - Limestone chippings for making spirulina raceway concrete (Kwameprekrom); 40 metric tonnes: [b]€3,173[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-19-08-2019 Cement Kwameprekrom]"''' - Cement for making concrete for the water-purification raceway - project Kwameprekrom; 110 bags: [b]€6,416[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Circulation_pump Circulation waterpump]"''' - Circulation waterpump for keeping the water in motion - project Kwameprekrom. [b]€333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Sand_Kwameprekrom Sand for project Kwameprekrom]"''' - Sand for making concrete for the spirulina raceway in Kwameprekrom. [b]€500[/b]

.

Total costs 2019: [b]€14,833[/b]

.

==2020==
Due to COVID19, we have been unable to travel to Ghana to verify financial transactions, and we have therefore suspended buying new materials, and have been working with materials already bought previously. In Mozambique, we initiated a trial in Manhica, to build a spirulina raceway to purify sewage water.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-05-10-2020 Cement Manhica]"''' - Cement bought in South Africa for making concrete for the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique - project Manhica: [b]€597[/b]
.

.

Costs

2022-09-15T12:44:50Z

RRM: /* Costs */

=Accounted Costs Stichting Ecosan Ghana

.

'''"FloFlo"''' - The percussion drill tower used for drilling bore holes: initial costs €3500, owned by [http://www.thijsklompmaker.com Thijs Klompmaker] (and thus no cost, nor an asset)

.
==2016==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Casing pipes]"''' - From China, 100 meter pipes for lining the boreholes: €1172,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Standard waterpumps]"''' - From Belgium, for shallow wells. Costs for 5 pumps: €745,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Solar powered waterpumps]"''' - From China, for deep wells. Costs for 3 complete sets: €1218,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Casing_pipes Import Casing Pipes]"''' - Import of casing pipes from China (in)to Ghana, Tema: €1155

.

Total costs 2016: [b]€4290[/b]

.

==2017==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cast_iron_waterpump Transport Cast Iron Waterpumps]"''' - Transport case iron waterpumps from Amsterdam to Dunkwa-On_Offin - €60

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Pole Solar Pole]"''' - Solar pole for mounting the solar panel on, project Modaso: €208

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Polytank Polytank]"''' - Polytank for storing water, project Modaso: €358

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Solar_Waterpump Import Solar Pumps]"''' - Costs for importing the solar powered waterpumps: €449

.

Total costs 2017: [b]€1075[/b]

.

==2018==

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Pickup_truck Pick-up truck]"''' - Second-hand 2001 Nissan Frontier pick-up truck: €4.137,-

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Modaso_composting_toilet Modaso composting toilet]"''' - Sand for the talud to build the toilet on: €430,-

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Total costs 2018: [b]€4567[/b]

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==2019==
'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement_Modaso Cement Modaso]"''' - Cement for the toilet foundation - project Modaso; 40 bags: [b]€2,333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Rebars_Abrobuasen Steel Sheets and Cement for Abrobuasen]"''' - Rebars, cement, etc for Abrobuasen toilet foundation: [b]€2,078[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Limestone_chippings Limestone chippings]"''' - Limestone chippings for making spirulina raceway concrete (Kwameprekrom); 40 metric tonnes: [b]€3,173[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-19-08-2019 Cement Kwameprekrom]"''' - Cement for making concrete for the water-purification raceway - project Kwameprekrom; 110 bags: [b]€6,416[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Circulation_pump Circulation waterpump]"''' - Circulation waterpump for keeping the water in motion - project Kwameprekrom. [b]€333[/b]

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Sand_Kwameprekrom Sand for project Kwameprekrom]"''' - Sand for making concrete for the spirulina raceway in Kwameprekrom. [b]€500[/b]

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Total costs 2019: [b]€14,833[/b]

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==2020==
Due to COVID19, we have been unable to travel to Ghana to verify financial transactions, and we have therefore suspended buying new materials, and have been working with materials already bought previously. In Mozambique, we initiated a trial in Manhica, to build a spirulina raceway to purify sewage water.

'''" - [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Cement-05-10-2020 Cement Manhica]"''' - Cement bought in South Africa for making concrete for the water-purification raceway in Manhica, Mozambique - project Manhica: [b]€597[/b]
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