Armyworm - Revision history

RRM: /* Eggs */

2015-03-03T17:39:08Z

‎Eggs

RRM: /* Mass rearing */

2015-03-03T16:07:58Z

‎Mass rearing

Aytundra: Spelling

2014-12-21T19:51:00Z

Spelling

RRM at 18:49, 21 December 2014

2014-12-21T18:49:52Z

RRM: /* Mass rearing */

2014-12-10T10:29:05Z

‎Mass rearing

RRM: /* Diet */

2014-12-02T11:43:02Z

‎Diet

RRM: /* Diet */

2014-12-02T08:55:29Z

‎Diet

RRM: /* Diet */

2014-12-02T08:50:23Z

‎Diet

RRM: /* Diet */

2014-12-02T08:32:08Z

‎Diet

RRM: /* Diet */

2014-12-02T08:29:05Z

‎Diet

@@ Line 60: / Line 60: @@
 ==Eggs==
-Most of the protein content of insect egg yolk is made up of lipoproteins and phosphoproteins. Vitellogenin is the precursor of such proteins that are a source of nutrients during early insect development. Vitellogenin has antioxidant an hormonal properties.
+Most of the protein content of insect egg yolk is made up of lipoproteins and phosphoproteins. Vitellogenin is the precursor of such proteins that are a source of nutrients during early insect development. Vitellogenin has antioxidant and hormonal properties. Vitellogenin influences lifespan through anti-oxidant and immune functions. Reducing vitellogenin increases susceptibility to oxidative damage. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25497555] Egg yolk protein provides peptides with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory activity (controlling hypertension), radical scavenging activity and α-glucosidase (which catalyzes the cleavage of d-glucose from oligosaccharides and disaccharides) inhibitory activity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4302234/]
 ==Parasitic and viral threats==

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:07, 3 March 2015
Line 58:		Line 58:

	Spodoptera exempta moths also need water. Sucrose (and not protein / amino acids) may increase fecundity and longevity in female moths, but strictly only water is required to achieve their reproductive potential (to commence oviposition). [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3032.1985.tb00019.x/abstract] Nectar sources are specifically important for migrating moths.[http://afrsweb.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/26446/LIFE-HISTORY%20TRADE-OFFS%20IN%20INSECTS%202.pdf] Similar to bees, one may feed the moths with sugar-water instead of water.		Spodoptera exempta moths also need water. Sucrose (and not protein / amino acids) may increase fecundity and longevity in female moths, but strictly only water is required to achieve their reproductive potential (to commence oviposition). [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3032.1985.tb00019.x/abstract] Nectar sources are specifically important for migrating moths.[http://afrsweb.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/person/26446/LIFE-HISTORY%20TRADE-OFFS%20IN%20INSECTS%202.pdf] Similar to bees, one may feed the moths with sugar-water instead of water.
		+
		+	==Eggs==
		+	Most of the protein content of insect egg yolk is made up of lipoproteins and phosphoproteins. Vitellogenin is the precursor of such proteins that are a source of nutrients during early insect development. Vitellogenin has antioxidant an hormonal properties.

	==Parasitic and viral threats==		==Parasitic and viral threats==

@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 The African Armyworm (2.5 to 4 cm long) is also called Okalombo, Mysteryworm, Kommandowurm or nutgrass armyworm. It is the larval stage of a moth.
-It does well on wet conditions and do not proliferate in dry conditions. It has been observed in East Africa and African countries south of the Sahara, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, pacific islands, south-east Asia and Australia.[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00140333#page-1] In Ghana it has been recorded on maize.[http://ghana.ipm-info.org/list_insects.htm#Maize] The moths are active at night, particularly between 20.00 and 22.00, feeding on nectar. The larvae are active during daytime.
+It does well on wet conditions and do not proliferate in dry conditions. It has been observed in East Africa and African countries south of the Sahara, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, pacific islands, south-east Asia and Australia.[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00140333#page-1] In Ghana it has been recorded on maize.[http://ghana.ipm-info.org/list_insects.htm#Maize] The moths are active at night, particularly between 20:00 and 22:00, feeding on nectar. The larvae are active during daytime.
 The moths (av. 1.6 cm long, wingspan 3 cm) live about 10 days (5 to 16 days). The female moth (only) needs water to complete oviposition.[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3032.1985.tb00019.x/abstract] (hence outbreaks coincide with rainfall after droughts) One female maximally lays about 1000 eggs in total; 500 to 600 on average. Eggs have a 0.5 cm diameter. During a period of 10 days the cream-green eggs are laid at night (before midnight, with a smaller peak at about 02·00–04·00 h.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2377708&fileId=S0007485300008312]) in 2 or 3 batches of 10 to 400 in one or more layers on leaves or other surfaces. The egg mass is covered with down and black hairs from the female. Right before hatching, the black head of the larvae makes the eggs turn dark. The eggs hatch in 2–5 days, usually in the early morning. The hatched larvae are greenish-translucent and just 1 mm long. As they feed on the youngest foliage of plants, they gradually become green.
 Larval stage lasts 14 to 22 days. Pupae are formed just (2-3 cm) below the soil surface in a soil cell, in preferrably soft, moist ground. The pupae are mahogany-brown and 1 cm to 1.5 cm long. The pupal phase takes 7 to 15 days. In East Africa the total lifecycle lasts about 25 days at an average temperature of 26°C.[http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/95/pests] Spodoptera exempta may have up to 13 generations per year.
@@ Line 41: / Line 41: @@
 Net reproduction rate of Spodoptera exempta is greater on Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) and maize than on Kikuyu grass, Pennisetum clandestinum, Guinea grass, Panicum maximum and Setaria plicatilis.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7302920&fileId=S1742758400001612][http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7302920&fileId=S1742758400001612] Larvae offered a choice of maize and Bermudagrass showed a preference for Bermudagrass. Survival was higher on Bermudagrass than on maize but the developmental time was longer.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2377708&fileId=S0007485300008312]
-S. exempta may also be succesfully reared on thin lamellae. (5 g. / individual, 60% survival)[http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19926782362.html;jsessionid=182A650567F0EAB465A752FB05768CEF] or dried maize-leaf powder renewed at weekly intervals. (> 90% survival. At 25°C eggs hatched in 3 days, larval period was 12–16 days and pupal period 10-12 days.) [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1570-7458.1975.tb02374.x/abstract] Rearing armyworm on a simple diet with milled good quality grass as the main diet constituent will not negatively affect fecundity of adults.[http://www.researchkenya.or.ke/node/28860] The higher the nitrogen content of the leaves, the higher the Armyworm fecundity. In general, Armyworm fitness is hardly affected by leave nitrogen levels.[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00320995#page-1]
+S. exempta may also be succesfully reared on thin lamellae. (5 g. / individual, 60% survival)[http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19926782362.html;jsessionid=182A650567F0EAB465A752FB05768CEF] or dried maize-leaf powder renewed at weekly intervals. (> 90% survival. At 25°C eggs hatched in 3 days, larval period was 12–16 days and pupal period 10-12 days.) [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1570-7458.1975.tb02374.x/abstract] Rearing armyworm on a simple diet with milled good quality grass as the main diet constituent will not negatively affect fecundity of adults.[http://www.researchkenya.or.ke/node/28860] The higher the nitrogen content of the leaves, the higher the Armyworm fecundity. In general, Armyworm fitness is hardly affected by leaf's nitrogen levels.[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00320995#page-1]
 ==Mass rearing==
@@ Line 61: / Line 61: @@
 ==Parasitic and viral threats==
-Within the Spodoptera genus, Spodotptera exempta is highly genetically diverse. One study revealed 17 different haplotypes within a single population of armyworms [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23061984], with a size variation of approximately 115 to 153 kb. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20600096] This is in support of the notion that Spodoptera exempta is specifically adapted for survival at low population densities.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7597460&fileId=S1742758400022633] It also explains why S. exempta (the high-density form) may readily become resistant to pathogens. Spodoptera exempta shows density–dependent phase polyphenism; it may develop different phenotypes at high and low population densities. This gives S. exempta the opportunity to invest heavily in polyphenism when this is reuired the most; when the likelyhood of exposure to pathogens is the highest (at high-density population levels). In reared Spodoptera exempta, death is usually caused by a nuclear polyhedrosis virus.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2377708&fileId=S0007485300008312]
+Within the Spodoptera genus, Spodoptera exempta is highly genetically diverse. One study revealed 17 different haplotypes within a single population of armyworms [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23061984], with a size variation of approximately 115 to 153 kb. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20600096] This is in support of the notion that Spodoptera exempta is specifically adapted for survival at low population densities.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7597460&fileId=S1742758400022633] It also explains why S. exempta (the high-density form) may readily become resistant to pathogens. Spodoptera exempta shows density–dependent phase polyphenism; it may develop different phenotypes at high and low population densities. This gives S. exempta the opportunity to invest heavily in polyphenism when this is required the most; when the likelihood of exposure to pathogens is the highest (at high-density population levels). In reared Spodoptera exempta, death is usually caused by a nuclear polyhedrosis virus.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2377708&fileId=S0007485300008312]
 * Spodoptera exempta is parasitized by Meteoridea (rare parasitic wasps). Parasitism was high (around 50%) in the low density samples (below 25 larvae/m2) and low (below 17%) in the highest density ones (about 250–1200 larvae/m2).[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2390432&fileId=S0007485300015054]
@@ Line 67: / Line 67: @@
 Nevertheless, prior to natural selection overcoming a pathogen threat, initial losses may be very high; In unsterile conditions of maintenance, almost all laboratory cultures from wild-caught female moths sustained heavy infections of a nuclear polyhedrosis virus. The appearance of the symptoms of polyhedrosis was accelerated at higher temperatures, and the incidence was higher in more crowded cultures. Transmission took place from contaminated leaves to larvae and probably from one larva to another. There was evidence also of generation-to-generation transmission through the egg.
-The effect on polyhedra of immersion in alkali solutions was investigated; it. was found that immersion for 15 minutes in 0.2% caustic potash effectively dissolved the matrix and inactivated the virus. When all equipment was sterilised in this way (or, later, with 0.4% caustic potash) apparently virus-free cultures were obtained by rearing the larvae from wild-caught females in isolation and breeding from those that survived to become adults.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2618312&fileId=S0007485300057072]
+The effect on polyhedra of immersion in alkali solutions was investigated; It was found that immersion for 15 minutes in 0.2% caustic potash effectively dissolved the matrix and inactivated the virus. When all equipment was sterilized in this way (or, later, with 0.4% caustic potash) apparently virus-free cultures were obtained by rearing the larvae from wild-caught females in isolation and breeding from those that survived to become adults.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2618312&fileId=S0007485300057072]
 When observing 3 generations, it appeared that most moths of the first generation migrated, after emerging from pupae in the ground, the smallest laid eggs locally. Their caterpillars were small, passive, heavily parasitized and most of the moths which developed from the survivors laid eggs locally. But vigour was regained in the third generation; this was expressed by large caterpillars of both passive and active forms, little parasites and large migrant moths.[http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2402085?uid=3738736&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21104662649883]

@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 The African Armyworm (2.5 to 4 cm long) is also called Okalombo, Mysteryworm, Kommandowurm or nutgrass armyworm. It is the larval stage of a moth.
-It does well on wet conditions and do not proliferate in dry conditions. It has been observed in East Africa and African countries south of the Sahara, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, pacific islands, south-east Asia and Australia.[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00140333#page-1] The moths are active at night, particularly between 20.00 and 22.00, feeding on nectar. The larvae are active during daytime.
+It does well on wet conditions and do not proliferate in dry conditions. It has been observed in East Africa and African countries south of the Sahara, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, pacific islands, south-east Asia and Australia.[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00140333#page-1] In Ghana it has been recorded on maize.[http://ghana.ipm-info.org/list_insects.htm#Maize] The moths are active at night, particularly between 20.00 and 22.00, feeding on nectar. The larvae are active during daytime.
 The moths (av. 1.6 cm long, wingspan 3 cm) live about 10 days (5 to 16 days). The female moth (only) needs water to complete oviposition.[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3032.1985.tb00019.x/abstract] (hence outbreaks coincide with rainfall after droughts) One female maximally lays about 1000 eggs in total; 500 to 600 on average. Eggs have a 0.5 cm diameter. During a period of 10 days the cream-green eggs are laid at night (before midnight, with a smaller peak at about 02·00–04·00 h.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2377708&fileId=S0007485300008312]) in 2 or 3 batches of 10 to 400 in one or more layers on leaves or other surfaces. The egg mass is covered with down and black hairs from the female. Right before hatching, the black head of the larvae makes the eggs turn dark. The eggs hatch in 2–5 days, usually in the early morning. The hatched larvae are greenish-translucent and just 1 mm long. As they feed on the youngest foliage of plants, they gradually become green.
 Larval stage lasts 14 to 22 days. Pupae are formed just (2-3 cm) below the soil surface in a soil cell, in preferrably soft, moist ground. The pupae are mahogany-brown and 1 cm to 1.5 cm long. The pupal phase takes 7 to 15 days. In East Africa the total lifecycle lasts about 25 days at an average temperature of 26°C.[http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/95/pests] Spodoptera exempta may have up to 13 generations per year.

@@ Line 45: / Line 45: @@
 ==Mass rearing==
 Armyworms may be mass reared at 24 to 25°C, 70RH and a 12h light:12h dark cycle. The armyworm performs best on a 80:20 protein:carbs diet (preferrably casein:sucrose). They cannot use maltose for optimal growth.[http://www.sith.itb.ac.id/profile/publikasi-ia/Consumption%20and%20utilization%20Spodoptera-intan-ahmad.pdf]
-Armyworms may be used to feed fish (like [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tilapia tilapia]) or to rear Praying mantids, Orius insidiosus and Agriosphodrus dohrni, and Armyworm eggs may be used to feed lacewings.
+Armyworm moths may be used to rear [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Praying_mantis Praying mantids] Armyworms may be used to feed fish (like [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Tilapia tilapia]) or to rear Orius insidiosus and Agriosphodrus dohrni, and Armyworm eggs may be used to feed [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Mallada_sp. green lacewings].
 The 2 cm long Assassin Bug (Agriosphodrus dohrni), native to China, India, Indonesia) may also be reared (fed every 3 days) on yellow mealworms, in plastic cases, under a temperature of 23°C and RH of 50%.[http://www.researchgate.net/publication/262919166_Taxonomic_and_bionomic_notes_on_Agriosphodrus_dohrni_(Signoret)(Hemiptera_Reduviidae_Harpactorinae)] The Assassin Bug may feed on all kinds of bugs, including aphids, beetles, hoppers', worms and caterpillars.

@@ Line 38: / Line 38: @@
 Setaria sphacelata (South African pigeon grass aka African bristlegrass aka Golden millet) is also a low-silica grass.[http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/96/6/1027/T1.expansion.html] Armyworms may feed on Setaria sphacelata [http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Setaria_sphacelata_var._anceps.htm], but Setaria sphacelata may be very high in oxalate (an anti-nutrient).[http://www.unboundmedicine.com/harrietlane/ub/citation/702506/An_outbreak_of_%22kikuyu_poisoning%22_in_Western_Transvaal_] [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jsfa.2740270314/abstract]
-Grasses preferred by Armyworm larvae are sweet grasses in the genus [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Silica_in_Poaceae#Cynodon Cynodon]. [http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/95/pests] Bermudagrass may contain 0.15% silica [http://books.google.nl/books?id=or98NnK10iYC&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=Cynodon+dactylon+silica+content&source=bl&ots=ND2se1oT0b&sig=X3xoymnrrfzys6Syi-5u54uO0RM&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=sgz-U8WbA_Dy7AbioYGICg&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Cynodon%20dactylon%20silica%20content&f=false] or 1.5% silica.[http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/96/6/1027/T1.expansion.html]
+Grasses preferred by Armyworm larvae are sweet grasses in the genus [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Silica_in_Poaceae#Cynodon_dactylon Cynodon]. [http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/95/pests] Bermudagrass may contain 0.15% silica [http://books.google.nl/books?id=or98NnK10iYC&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=Cynodon+dactylon+silica+content&source=bl&ots=ND2se1oT0b&sig=X3xoymnrrfzys6Syi-5u54uO0RM&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=sgz-U8WbA_Dy7AbioYGICg&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Cynodon%20dactylon%20silica%20content&f=false] or 1.5% silica.[http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/96/6/1027/T1.expansion.html]
 Net reproduction rate of Spodoptera exempta is greater on Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) and maize than on Kikuyu grass, Pennisetum clandestinum, Guinea grass, Panicum maximum and Setaria plicatilis.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7302920&fileId=S1742758400001612][http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7302920&fileId=S1742758400001612] Larvae offered a choice of maize and Bermudagrass showed a preference for Bermudagrass. Survival was higher on Bermudagrass than on maize but the developmental time was longer.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2377708&fileId=S0007485300008312]

@@ Line 36: / Line 36: @@
 Exposure to silica-rich diets also caused an extremely rapid increased mandible wear.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18771503] This results in mechanical protection of resources in chlorenchyma cells. As a result of this (and of the disrupting influence of phytoliths on microbial action in the gut), less chlorophyll is released after grinding and more chlorophyll is retained after passing through the gut.[http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/102/4/653.full]
-Armyworms may feed on Setaria sphacelata.[http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Setaria_sphacelata_var._anceps.htm] Setaria sphacelata may be very high in oxalate (an anti-nutrient).[http://www.unboundmedicine.com/harrietlane/ub/citation/702506/An_outbreak_of_%22kikuyu_poisoning%22_in_Western_Transvaal_] [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jsfa.2740270314/abstract]
+Setaria sphacelata (South African pigeon grass aka African bristlegrass aka Golden millet) is also a low-silica grass.[http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/96/6/1027/T1.expansion.html] Armyworms may feed on Setaria sphacelata [http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Setaria_sphacelata_var._anceps.htm], but Setaria sphacelata may be very high in oxalate (an anti-nutrient).[http://www.unboundmedicine.com/harrietlane/ub/citation/702506/An_outbreak_of_%22kikuyu_poisoning%22_in_Western_Transvaal_] [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jsfa.2740270314/abstract]
 Grasses preferred by Armyworm larvae are sweet grasses in the genus [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Silica_in_Poaceae#Cynodon Cynodon]. [http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/95/pests] Net reproduction rate of Spodoptera exempta is greater on Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) and maize than on Kikuyu grass, Pennisetum clandestinum, Guinea grass, Panicum maximum and Setaria plicatilis.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7302920&fileId=S1742758400001612][http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7302920&fileId=S1742758400001612] Larvae offered a choice of maize and Bermudagrass showed a preference for Bermudagrass. Survival was higher on Bermudagrass than on maize but the developmental time was longer.[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2377708&fileId=S0007485300008312]

@@ Line 33: / Line 33: @@
 The Spodoptera exempta larvae feed on all types of wild grasses (Poaceae) and sedges (Cyperaceae), and on early stages of grains (incl. oat, sugarcane, maize, wheat and rice). Their preferred grasses are sweet grasses in the genus Cynodon. They grow faster (and bigger) on well watered plants (80-90% moisture content) vs water stressed plants (60-70% MC). Survivorship is generally lower on water stressed plants in very young and older larvae.[http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/95/pests] The larvae posess receptors with sensitivity for specific sugars.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/858367] They prefer more carbohydrate over more protein.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15670864] But the opposite is true when virally or parasitically infected.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24033221]
-High silica in grasses and sedges inhibits Armyworm growth. Seven of the ten most important food crops are silicon accumulators (up to over 10% in Wheat and 6% in ryegrass). The [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Silica_in_Poaceae silica content] of specific grasses can be considerably higher than in many other plants.
+High silica in grasses and sedges inhibits Armyworm growth. Seven of the ten most important food crops are silicon accumulators (up to over 10% in Wheat and 6% in ryegrass). The [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php?title=Silica_in_Poaceae silica content] of specific grasses can be considerably higher than in many other plants. Spodoptera exempta cannot easily adapt to physical defences such as silica. Silica in the leaves of grasses (2-5% of dry leaf mass [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16638012]) acts as a defence. Even with short-term exposure, but also progressively impacting with time, silica reduces the conversion efficiency of food into bodymass, and the amount of nitrogen absorbed from their food, leading to reduced growth rates.
 Armyworms may feed on Setaria sphacelata.[http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Setaria_sphacelata_var._anceps.htm] Setaria sphacelata may be very high in oxalate (an anti-nutrient).[http://www.unboundmedicine.com/harrietlane/ub/citation/702506/An_outbreak_of_%22kikuyu_poisoning%22_in_Western_Transvaal_] [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jsfa.2740270314/abstract]