Acrylamide

Acrylamide is a known neurotoxin[1] and carcinogen, present in heated foods and cigarette smoke. Acrylamide induces hepatic ornithine decarboxylase (ODC)[2] and affects behaviour by influencing hepatic mechanisms or central dopaminergic function.[3]

Acrylamide is industrially produced for various purposes (eg polymeres). Environmentally, it may be the result of decomposition of polyacrylamide (in herbicides). Acrylamide decomposes in the presence of acids, bases and oxidizing agents, rendering ammonia or nitrogen oxides. Endogenously, acrylamide is metabolized to glycidamide (an expoxide).

Acrylamide in food

Amides are derivates of ammonia or (carboxylated) amines. In cooked food, acrylamide may be yielded by the reaction of amino acids and carbonyls or simple sugars (as in starches). Lower levels of reducing sugars (which differs per season[4]) results in lower levels of acrylamide in fried potato.[5] Baking temperature and surface color correspond with acrylamide concentration in cookies. Steam-assisted baking results in lower levels.[6] Some antioxidants (vitamin E) decrease the level of acrylamide produced during food processing.[7] Soybean-containing commercial bakery products contain higher levels of acrylamide than similar bakery products without soy.[8]

• In a Californian study, non-cancer benchmarks for acrylamide were exceeded by >95% of preschool-age children, most of the acrylamide coming from chips, cereal, crackers, and other processed carbohydrate foods.[9]
• Acrylamide crosses the human placenta. Maternal dietary exposure to acrylamide is associated with reduced birth weight and head circumference.[10]
• Even though potato crisps contain at least 10 fold more acrylamide (250 to 6700 mcg/kg) than acrolein (26 mcg/kg), 4 to 12 fold more acrolein- than acrylamide-related mercapturic acids are excreted in urine, which may indicate undetected varieties of acrolein.[11]

Acrylamide food additives

• AF-2 or furylfuramide; 2-(2-furyl)-3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)-acrylamide (widely used in Japan[12]), was first demonstrated to be mutagenic in Escherichia coli WP-2 and then proved to be carcinogenic in experimental animals [13][14][15] 5-nitro-2-furyl is a radical.
• 5-NFAA; 3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)acrylic acid proved to be more mutagenic than AF-2.[16]

Acetamide in food

Amides are derivates of ammonia or (carboxylated) amines. Acetamide is a carcinogenic derived from acetic acid, by dehydrating ammonium acetate[17], or by hydrolysis of acetonitrile[18]. Thermal degradation (>200°C) of chitin also yields acetamide.[19] Chitin is a good inducer for defense mechanisms in plants[20], and present in fungi, the exoskeletons of crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters and shrimps, in mollusks, and in the internal shells of squid and octopus. Acetamide is also a byproduct of thermochemical treatment of lignocellulosic biomass.[21]